A Short French Grammar
A SHORT FRENCH GRAMMAR
[PRINTED IN THE YEAR 1751.]
SECTION I.
OF LETTERS.
1. THE letters in French are twenty-two:
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, v, u, x, aw, ba, sa, da, a, ef, ja, aush, e, el, em, en, o, pa, ku, ar, es, ta, va, u, ix, y, z.
egrec, zed.
2. A sounds like a in all.
3. But before i or y, like a in face.
4. Ai, eai, ay, ei, sound like ai in pain.
5. Am, like om; an, like ong in song.
6. Aim, em, ain, in, like ang in hang; but ine like een; aine, as in English.
7. In ao the o is not sounded. So paon, read paung.
8. Au, eau, sounds like o in host.
9. E commonly sounds like a in face; so does
10. E marked thus e, or before a final z.
11. E final unmarked is not sounded.
12. Eim, ein, sound like eng in strength.
13. Em, like em or om; en, like ong in song.
14. Eu, eui, ieu, oei, oeu, uei, ueu, u, ue, ui, yeu, sound almost alike.
15. Le sounds very short; les, like lay.
16. I and ie final sound like e in he.
17. Ien like eang. But in client, convenient, ewpedient, Jqent, orient, patient, like eong.
18. I before ll is sounded after it; except in words beginning with il; and in Achille, camomille, imbecille, pupille, mille, ville, tranquille, argille, distiller.
19. Im, with a consonant following, sounds like em or im; with a vowel following, like im.
20. O sounds like o in post.
21. Oi, oy, oye, eoi, in the first syllable of a word, before l, m, r, and in proper names, sound like waw:
22. Elsewhere, like a in face.
23. But oi before gn sounds almost like wo.
24. Oin sounds like wang. So point, read pwang.
25. Ou, aou, oue, like oo in fool.
26. Oui like we.
27. Om like om; on like ung.
28. U almost like u in surprise.
29. U is not sounded after q; nor between g and e, or g and i; except in carquois, and foreign words.
30. No final consonant, beside, c, f, l, m, n, q, r, is sounded before an initial consonant; except in foreign proper names.
31. A final consonant preceding the initial vowel of a Substantive is sounded as in one word:
32. And so is the final consonant of an Adverb preceding the initial vowel of an Adjective.
33. C final is always sounded; except in almanac, arsenic, estomac.
34. A final c following n sounds like g; and so in second, secret.
35. C marked thus c, sounds like s.
36. Ch like sh; except in foreign words.
37. Ce la is read slaw; est ce, ess.
38. D final before an initial vowel sounds like t.
39. F final is not sounded in baillif, clef, eteuf, chef d’oeurre; neaf, new.
40. F before an initial vowel sounds like v.
41. A vowel before gn sounds as if an i followed it.
42. H is rarely sounded in the beginning of a word, never in th.
43. L final is not sounded in barril, chenil, Fils, filleul, fusil, gentil, il, nombril, outil, sourcil.
44. Ol final sounds like oo in fool; as does ouil in genouil, verrouil.
45. N final, or in the end of a syllable before a consonant, sounds as if a g followed.
46. R final is not sounded in the Infinitive Mood of tbe First and Second Conjugation, nor in Nouns of two or more svllables; except enfer, fier, hyver; leger.
47. S between two vowels sounds like z.
48. T hefore i sounds like s; except in Aristocratie, Dalmatie, Galasie, minutie, primatie, prophetie.
49. Ent in the Third Person Plural of Verbs is not sounded.
50. Est before a consonant sounds like a; before a vowel like ate.
51. Notre and votre sound note and vote; except in the end of a sentence.
52. X in dix and six, and between two vowels, sounds like s; in soixanie and Bruxelles like ss.
53. X before co, cu, sounds like s.
54. X in Latin words between two vowels sounds like gz. SECTION II.
OF NOUNS.
1. Un (a) or le (the) is prefixed to every Masculine Noun; une or la to every Feminine; except Dieu, and proper names.
2. Nouns ending in ion, in e mute, or derived from the Latin, are generally of the Feminine Gender.
3. Most other Nouns are of the Masculine.
4. The French have no Cases. They supply the place of them by varying the Article thus: —
Singular.
Nom. Acc. Le Roy, the King.
Gen. Abl. Du Roy.
Plural.
Nom. Acc. Les Roys.
Dat. Aux Roys.
5. A Feminine Noun has la, de la, a la, instead of le, du, au.
6. The Plural Number is formed by adding s to the Singular.
7. But Nouns ending in s, x, or z, are not altered. So, le palais, Plu. les palais.
8. Nouns ending in ail or al form the Plural in aux.
9. Nouns ending in aa or eu form the Plural in x.
10. Nouns ending in e form the Plural in z.
11. Nouns ending in t change it into s. So, enfant, enfans.
12. Ayeul has in the Plural ayeux; ciel, cieux; oeil, yeux.
13. The Comparative Degree is formed by prefixing plus to the Positive. So, plus sage, wiser.
14. The Superlative, by prefixing le or la to the Comparative. So, le plus sage, wisest.
15. But in the following words thus: —
Bon, good, meilleur, le meilleur.
maxuvais, bad, pire, lepire.
petit, little, moindre, le moindre.
16. In comparing Numbers de is used for que.
SECTION III.
OF PRONOUNS.
1. THERE are eighteen Pronouns, which are declined thus: — Sing. N. Moi, I, Acc. me. Plu. N. noss Acc. nous.
toi, thou, te. vous vous.
soi, himself, se,
lui, he} le, eux, les.
elle, she} la, elles, les.
2. Sing. Ce, cet, Mas.}that Plu. ces.
cette, Fem. }/
celui, Mas. }that ceux.
celle, Fem. }/ celles.
3. Ce, cet, or cette, with la subjoined, signifies that. So, ce garcon-la, that boy.
4. Sing. Mon, M. ma, F. my, Plu. mes.
ton, M. ta, F. thy, tes.
son, M. sa, F. his, ses.
notre, our, nos.
votre, your, vos.
Ieur, their, leurs.
5. Sing. Le mien, lamienne, mine, }
le tien, thine, }
le sien, his, } form the Plural by
le or la notre, ours, } taking s.
Ie or la votre, yours,}
le or la leur, theirs,}
6. Instead of Pronouns are often used
Ou, in which, to which, where, whither:
En, of him, her, it, them; for it, at it, to it, with it or them; hence, thence, some, any, none:
Y, in, of, about it; here, hither, there, thither. SECTION IV.
OF AUXILIARY VERBS.
1. THE Indicative Mood has seven Tenses: Four simple, and three compound.
2. The simple are, the Present, the Imperfect, (which speaks of an action past, without mentioning the time,) the Preterperfect Definite, (which does mention the time,) and the Future.
3. The compound are, the Perfect Indefinite, (which speaks of an action perfectly past, without mentioning the time,) the First Preterpluperfect, which does not, and the Second, which does, specify the time.
4. The Subjunctive Mood has three simple, and four compound Tenses.
5. The simple are, the Present, the First Imperfect, and the Second Imperfect.
6. The compound are, the Preterperfect, the First Preterpluperfect, the Second Preterpluperfect, and the Future.
7. There are two auxiliary Verbs, avoir and etre.
8. Avoir, to have, is conjugated thus: —
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. J’ai, tu as, il a.
I have, thou hast, he hath.
Plu. Nous avons, vous avez, ils ont.
We have, you have, they have.
Imperfect.
Sing. J’avois, tu avois, il avoit.
I had, thou hadst, he had.
Plu. avions, aviez, avoient.
we had, ye had, they had.
Preterperfect Definite.
Sing. eus, eus, eut.
I have had, etc.
Plu. eumes, eutes, eurent.
We have had, etc.
Future.
Sing. aurai, auras, aura.
I shall or will have, etc.
Plu. aurons, aurez, auront.
We shall or will have, etc.
The three compound Tenses are a repetition of the three first simple Tenses, with eu subjoined to each Person.
Preterperfect Indefinite.
Sing. J’ai eu, etc. Plu. Nous avons eu, etc.
I have had. We have had.
First Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’avois eu, etc. Plu. Nous avions eu, etc.
I had had. We had had.
Second Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’eus eu, etc. Plu. Nous eumes eu, etc.
I had had. We had had.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Ayes, qu’il aye.
Have thou, let him have.
Plu. Ayons, qu’ils ayent.
Let us have, let them have.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. J’aye, ayes, ait.
I may or can have, etc.
Plu. Ayons, ayez, ayent.
We may or can have, etc.
First Imperfect.
Sing. J’aurois, tu aurois, il auroit.
I should have, etc.
Plu. Nous aurions, vouz auriez, ils auroient.
We should have, etc.
Second Imperfect.
Sing. Eusse, eusses, eusse.
I might have, etc.
Plu. Eussions, eussiez, eussent.
We might have, etc.
The four compound Tenses are a repetition of these sirnple Tenses, and of the Future of the Indicative, with eu subjoined to each Person. Perfect.
Sing. J’aye eu, etc. Plu. Nous ayons eu, etc.
I may have had.
First Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’aurois eu, etc. Plu. Nous aurions eu, etc. I should have had.
Second Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’eusse eu, etc. Plu. Nous eussions eu, etc. I might have had.
Future.
Sing. J’aurai eu, etc. Plu. Nous aurons eu, etc.
I shall have had.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Avoir, To have.
Participles.
Active. Ayant, having. Passive. Eu, had.
9. Etre, to be, is conjugated thus: —
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je suis, es, est. Plu. Sommes, etes, sont.
I am, thou art, etc.
Imperfect.
Sing. Etois, etois, etoit. Plu. Etions, etiez, etoient. I was, etc.
Perfect Definite.
Sing. Fus, fus, fut. Plu. Fumes, futes, furent.
I have been, etc.
Future.
Sing. Serai, seras, sera. Plu. Serons, serez, seront. I shall or will be, etc.
The compound Tenses are a repetition of the thrce first simple Tenses of avoir, with ete sub.joined to each Person.
Preterperfect Indefinite.
Sing. J’ai ete, etc. Plu. Nous avons ete, etc.
I have been.
First Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’avois ete, etc. Plu. Nous avions ete; etc. I had been.
Second Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’eus ete, etc. Plu. Nous eumes ete, etc.
I had been.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Sois, qu’il soit. Plu. Soyons, soyez, qu’ils soient. Be thou, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je sois, sois, soit. Plu. Soyons, soyez, soient. I may be.
First Imperfect.
Sing. Serois, serois, seroit. Plu. Serions, seriez, seroient. I should be.
Second Imperfect (never used).
Sing. Fusse, fusses, fut. Plu. Fussions,fussiez,fussent. I might be, etc.
The compound Tenses are a repetition of these simple Tenses, and of the Future of the Indicative of avoir, with ete subjoined. Perfect.
Sing. J’aye ete, etc. Plu. Nous ayons ete, etc.
I may have been.
First Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’aurois ete,etc. Plu. Nous aurions e!e, etc. I should have been.
Second Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’eusse ete, etc. Plu. Nous eussions ete, etc. I might have been.
Future.
Sing. J’aurai ete, etc. Plu. Nous aurions ete, etc. I shall have been.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Etre, to be.
Participles.
Active. Etant, being. Passive. Ete, been.
SECTION V.
OF REGULAR VERBS.
1. THERE are four Conjugations.
2. A Verb of the First Conjugation forms the Infinitive in er, and is conjugated thus: —
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je parle, I speak, tu parles, il parle.
Plu. Nous parlons, vous parlez, ils parlent.
Imperfect.
Sing. Je parlois, I did speak, parlois, parloit.
Plu. Parlions, parliez, parloient.
Preterperfect Definite.
Sing. Je parlai, I have spoken, parlas, parlat.
Plu. Parlames, parlates, parlerent.
Future.
Sing. Je parlerai, I shall or will speak, parleras, parlera. Plu. Parlerons, parlerez, parleront.
Preterfperfect Indefinite.
Sing. J’ai parle, I have spoken, etc.
Plu. Nous avons parle, etc.
First Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’avois parle, I had spoken, etc.
Plu. Vous avions parle, etc.
Second Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’eus parle, I had spoken, etc.
Plu. Nous eumes parle, etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Parle, speak; qu’il parle, let him speak.
Plu. Parlons, parlez, qu’ils parlent.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Parle, I may or can speak, parles, parle.
Plu. Parlions, parliez, parlent.
First Imperfect.
Sing. Parlerois, parlerois, parleroit.
Plu. Parlerions, parleriez, parleroient.
Second Imperfect, if ever used.
Sing. Parlasse, parlasses, parlat.
Plu. Parlassions, parlassiez, parlassent.
Perfect.
Sing. J’aye, etc., parle.
Plu. Nous ayons, etc., parle.
First Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’aurois parle.
Second Preterpluperfect.
Sing. J’eusse, etc., parle.
Future.
Sing. J’aurai, etc., parle.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Parler, to speak.
Participles.
Active. Parlant, speaking. Passive. Parle’, spoken.
3. A Verb of the Second Conjugation forms the Infinitive in ir, and is conjugated thus: —
INDlCATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je punis, I punish, punis, punit.
Plu. Punissons, punissez, punissent.
Imperfect.
Sing. Je punissois, I punished, punnissois, punissoif. Plu. Punissions, punissiez, punissoient.
Perfect.
Sing. Je punis, I have punished, punis, punit.
Plu. Punimes, punites, punirent.
Future.
Sing. Je punirai, I will punish, puniras, punira.
Plu. Punirons, punirez, puniront.
The Compound Tenses, in all Conjugations, are formed alike of the Simple Tenses, with the Passive Participle subjoined.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Puni, punish, qu’il punisse.
Plu. Punissons, punissez, qu’ils punissent.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je punisse, I may punish, punisses, punisse. Plu. Punissions, punissiez, punissent.
First Imperfect.
Sing. Je punirois, I should punish, punirois, puniroit. Plu. Punirions, puniriez, puniroient.
Second Imperfect.
Sing. Je punisse, I should punish, punisses, punisse. Plu. Punissions, punissiez, punissent.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Punir, to punish.
Participles.
Active. Punissant, punishing. Passive. Puni, punished.
4. A Verb of the Third Conjugation forms the Infinitive in oir, and is conjugated thus: —
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je recois, I receive, recois, recoit.
Plu. Recevons, recevez, recoivent.
Imperfect.
Sing. Je recevois, I received, recevois, recevoit. Plu. Recevions, receviez, recevoient.
Perfect.
Sing. Je receus, I have received, receus, receut.
Plu. Receumes, receutes, receurent.
Future.
Sing. Je-recevrai, I shall receive, recevras, recetra. Plu. Recevrons, recevrez, recevront.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Recoi, receive; qu’il recoive
Plu. Recevons, recevez, recoivont.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je recoive, I may receive, recoives, recoive. Plu. Recevions, receviez, recoivent.
First Imperfect.
Sing. Je recevrois, I should receive, recevrois, recevroit. Plu. Recevrions, recevriez, recevroient.
Second Imperfect, if ever used.
Sing. Je receusse, I might receive, receusses, receusse. Plu. Receussions, receussiez,receussent.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Recevoir, to receive.
Participles.
Active. Recevant, receiving. Passive. Receu, received.
5. A Verb of the Fourth Conjugation forms the Infinitive in re, and is conjugated thus: —
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je vens, I sell, vens, vend.
Plu. Vendons, vendez, vendent.
Imperfect.
Sing. Je vendois, I sold, vendois, vendoit.
Plu. Vendions, vendiez, vendoient.
Perfect.
Sing. Je vendis, I have sold, vendis, vendit.
Plu. Vendimes, vendites, vendirent.
Future.
Sing. Je vendrai, I will sell, vendras, vendra.
Plu. Vendrons, etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Ven, sell; qu’il vende.
Plu. Vendons, vendez, vendent.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je vende, I may sell, vendes, vende.
Plu. Vendions, vendiez, vendent.
First Imperfect.
Sing. Je vendrois, I should sell, vendrois, vendroit. Plu. Vendrions, vendriez, vendroient.
Second Imperfect, if used.
Sing. Je vendisse, I might sell, vendisses,vendit. Plu. Vendimes, vendites, vendirent.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Vendre, to sell.
Participles.
Active. Vendant, selling. Passive. Fendu, sold.
6. But Verbs ending in aindre, eindre, oindre, form the Passive Participle by changing dre into t; and take g before n in all the Simple Tenses, except thc Future of the Indicative, and the First Imperfect of the Subjunctive. Accordingly Joindre, to join, is conjugated thus: — INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Joins, joins, joint.
Plu. Joignons, joignez, joignent.
Imperfect.
Sing. Joignois, etc.
Perfect.
Sing. Joignis, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Joigne, etc.
Second Imperfect.
Joignisse,etc.
Participle.
Joignant.
7. The Passive Voice in all Verbs is only the Auxiliary Verb etre, conjugated throughout with the Passive Participle.
8. A Verb is placed thus: —
J’ai le livre. I have the book.
Je n’ai pas le 1ivre. I have not the book.
Je n’ai pas eu le lirre. I have not had the book.
Ai-je le livre? Have I the book?
N’ai je pas le livre? Have not I the book?
N’ai je pas eu le livre? Have not I had the book?
J’en parle. I speak of it.
J’y porte. I carry thither.
Parlez en. Speak of it.
Portez y. Carry ye thither.
J’y en porte. I carry some of it thither.
SECTION VI.
OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
1. THERE is but one Irregular Verb of the First Conjugation, — aller, to go, which is conjugated thus: —
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Je vais, I go, vas, va.
Plu. Allons, allez, vont.
Future.
Sing. Irai, iras, ira, etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Va, qu’aille. Plu. Allons, allez, aillent.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present.
Sing. Aille, ailles, aille, etc.
First Imperfect.
J’irois,etc.
Second Imperfect.
J’allasse, etc.
2. The Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation are, — Pre. Per. Fut. Part.
Acquerir
to acquire J’acquiers, acquis, acquerrai, acqui
bouillir Je bous, I boil,
courrir Je couvre, I cover, couvert.
In like manner are conjugated offrir, to offer; ouvrir, to open; and souffrir, to suffer.
cueillir, Je cueille, I gather.
dormir, Je dors, I sleep.
mentir, Je mens, I lie.
And so sentir, to feel or smell.
mourir, Je meurs, I die, mourus, mort.
partir, Je pars, I go away.
repentir, Je me repens, I repent.
servir, Je sers, I serve.
sortir, Je sors, I go out.
tenir, Je tiens, (tenons,) tins, tiendrai, tenu.
And so venir, to come.
vetir, } Je vets, vetu.
to clothe, }
3. The Irregular Verbs of the Third Conjugation are, — Mouvoir, Je meus, I move, mus, meu.
pouvoir, Je puis, I can, pus, pourrai, pu.
tu peus, nous
pouvons,
scavoir, Je sais, I know, saurai,seu.
que je sache, (Part. Act. sachant.)
asseoir, Je m’assieds, I sit, assis, assi.
valoir, Je vaus, I am worth, vaudrai.
And so faloir.
voir Je vois, I see, vis, verrai.
vauloir, Je veuz, I am willing, voudrai.
4. The Irregular Verbs of the Fourth Corljugation are, — Pre. Imp. Per. Part. Act. Part. Pass.
boire, Je bois, beus, beuvant, beu.
(beuvons,)
conclurre, Je conclus, concluois, conclu.
I conclude,
And so exclurre, reclurre; only their Participles are exclusse, reclusse. Pre. Per. Fut. Part.
coduire, Je conduis, I lead, conduisis, conduirai, conduit. (Imp. conduisois,)
And so cuire, to cook; construire, to build; destruire, to destroy; luire, to shine; nuire, to hurt; reduire, to reduce.
confire, Je confis, I candy, confit, confirai, confi. (confissons,)
And so suffire, to suffice.
Pre. Imp. Per. Part.
connoitre, Je connois, I know, connoissois, connus, connu. And so croitre, to grow; and paroitre, to appear.
coudre, Je cous, I sow,cousois, cousus, cousu.
dire, Je dis, I say, disois, dis, dit.
ecrire, J’ecris, I write, ecrivois, ecrivis,ecrit. faire, Je fais, I do, faisois,fis, fait.
(ils font,) (Fut. ferai,)
lire, Je lis, I read, lisois, lus, leu.
mettre, Je mets, I put, mis, mis.
moudre, Je mous, I grind, moulois, moulus, moulu.
naitre, Je nais, I am born, naissois, naquis,ne.
plaire, Je plais, I please, plaisois, plus, plu.
And so taire, to be silent.
prendre, Je prens, I take, prenois, pris, pris.
repaitre, Je repaissois, repus, repu.
I fed,
resoudre, }
to resolve, } resolvois, resolus, resolu.
And so absoudre and dissoudre; only their Participles are absous, dissous. rire, }
to laugh, } ris, ri.
vivre, }
to live, } vecus, vecu
5. Some Verbs are defective, being only used in some Tenses or Persons.
6. Some are ImpersonaI, being only used in the Third Person Singular; as, Il pleut, It rains.
7. Il fait is sometimes used for est; as, Il fait beau temps, It is fine weather.
8. The Feminine Participle is formed by adding e to the Masculine. So, porte, portee.
SECTION VII.
OF ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS.
1. THE Degrees of Comparison are formed in Adverbs as in Adjectives, by prefixing plus and le plus.
2. The French generally use two negatives together, ne and pas, or point.
3. Tant and autant are used before Substantives; si and aussi before Adjectives. Moreover,
4. Autant and aussi are always used with an affirmation; si and tant with a negation.
5. Dedans, within; dehors, without; dessus, above; dessous, beneath; alentour, round; auparavant, before; are properly Adverbs.
6. Yet, when dedans and dehors, dessus and dessous, are joined together, they are used as Prepositions; or when they have de before them.
7. Faute is used before a Noun, and a faute before a Verb; as, faute d’argent, for want of money.
8. These Prepositions govern a Nominative or Accusative Case: — A, to, at; apres, after; avant, before; avec, with; chez, to, at; contre, against; dans, in; des, from; dega, on this side; delb, on that side; depais, since; derriere, behind; dervant, before; de dessus, from above; de dessous, from under; durant, during; en, in, into; entre, between; envers, towards; environ, about; excepte’, except; hors, out, without; hormis, except; joignant, next; moyennant, provided; nonobstant, notwithstanding; outre, besides; par, by; par dehor, without; par dessus, above; par dessous, below; de par, from, by; parmi, among; pendant, during; pour, for; sans, without; sauf, except; selon, according to; sous, under; suivant, pursuant to; sur, upon; touchant, touching; vers, towards; a travers, cross, through.
9. Vers relates to a place; envers to a person.
10. En is used before Nouns that have no Article; and to express the whole time of doing a thing.
11. Dans is used before Nouns that have an Article; and to express the place where we lay a thing.
12. In most other cases en and dans are used indifferently.
13. These Prepositions govern a Genitive Case: a cause, because; a couvert, secure from; a fleur, close to, or even with; a l’abri de, sheltered from; a l’egard, with regard to; a l’endroit, towards; a l’egal, in comparison; a l’envi, in emulation; a l’insceu, unknown to; a la maniere, after the manner; arriere, from; en arriere, behind; au dehors, without; au deca, on this side; au dela, on that side; au dedans, within; au dessus, over or upon; au dessous, under; au milieu, in the midst; au prix, in comparison of; aupres, near; autour, about; ensuite, after; le long, along; loin, far; pres, proche, near; vis-a-vis, over against.
14. These Prepositions govern a Dative Case: Jusque, till, to; quant, as for; conformement, pursuant to.
SECTION VIII.
OF SYNTAX.
1. ADJECTIVES ending in esque, f, ile, ique, or ule, are generally put after the Substantive.
2. So are Adjectives that express a color, that are formed from names of nations, that denote a quality of the weather or elements.
3. So are also most Adjectives that may be used as Substantives, and a few others, with all Participles; as, un chemin battu, a beaten way.
4. Most Adjectives may be placed either before or after; but in some, the position alters the sense. So, une femme sage, a wise woman; une sage femme, a midwife.
5. Partie and quelque chose, though Feminine, are often joined with a Masculine Adjective.
6. If a question be asked with the Pronoun ce, we must answer with the same; as, Qu’elle heure est cela? C’est une heure. Otherwise we say, Il est une heure.
7. Ce is used for il or ils, before a proper name, a Pronoun, and a Noun that has no Article; as, C’est Pierre: C’est Monsieur.
8. As also before a Substantive expressing an inanimate or irrational thing, before an Infinitive, a Participle Passive, an Adverb, or a Preposition; as, C’est assez, It is enough.
9. Me, te, se, le, la, les, lui, leur, nous, and vous, are put before the Verb that governs them; as, Il me hait.
10. And they are used instead of the Datives. So we say, ll m’a dit, Je vous donne; not, Il a dit a moi.
11. But in the Imperative Mood, we use the Dative after theVerb; as, Donnez moi; except we speak negatively; as, Ne me dites pas cela; or in the Third Person; as, Qu’il se promene, Let him walk. The same rules hold with regard to en and y.
12. When a Verb governs two Pronouns, if one be of the First or Second Person, that of the Accusative Case ought to be next the Verb; as, Donnez le moi; but that of the Dative Case, if they are of the Third Person; as, Je le lui dirai.
13. En and y, joined to these Pronouns, always follow them; as, Je lui en parlerai.
14. When we speak of things or persons in general, we use soi; when of a particular person, lui or elle; as, Il ne parle que de lui, He speaks only of himself.
15. A Masculine Pronoun is often put before a Feminine Noun beginning with a vowel: as, mon ame.
16. Property is often expressed by the Dative Case, thus: Ce livre est a moi, a lui, a Madame; is mine, his, etc.
17. Qui and dont are commonly spoken of persons; lequel, of things.
18. Lequel is put for qui or dont, either to express a choice, or to avoid ambiguity; as also in the Genitive Case; as, Au retour dequel.
19. Le or la is sometimes put for a Noun or a Verb; as, Etes vous malade? Oui, je le (or la) suis.
20. The following Conjunctions require a Subjunctive Mood; afin que, that; avant que, devant que, before that; a moins que, except; au cas, en cas que, in case that; a condition que, pourveu que, provided; soit que, whether; sans que, without; bien que, combien que, encore que, quoique, though; jusques a ce que, till; de crainte que, least; pose que, suppose.
21. A Verb followed by que governs either an Indicative or Subjunctive; but a Subjunctive commonly, if si go before it.
22. Most Impersonal Verbs govern a Subjunctive.
23. As do the following Verbs; apprehender, attendre, commander, craindre, defendre, desirer, dire, douter, empecher, endurer, exhorter, faire, garder, permettre, poser; pretendre, prier, persuader, requerir, souffrir, souhaiter, supplier, supposer, vouloir, and a few others of like signification.
24. Quelque, quelque quoique, and an Adjective of the Superlative degree, govern a Subjunctive.
25. The Latin Gerunds and Supines are expressed by de, a, pour, with an Infinitive Mood.
26. De is used before an Infinitive,
(1.)After a Substantive; as, L’art de parler:
(2.)After Adjectives that govern a Genitive Case; as, Content de mourir:
(3.)After etre, joined with an Adjective; as, Il est bon de mourir: (4.)After avertir, ordonner, and several other Verbs.
27. A is used before an Infinitive,
(1.)After avoir; as, J’ai une letter a ecrire:
(2.)After Adjectives that govern a Dative Case; as, Je suis pret a parler:
(3) Where the Infinitive Active is taken passively; as, La guerre est a craindre:
(4.)After some Verbs; as, Je me prepare a partir.
28. A and de are used indifferently before several Verbs.
29. Pour is used before an Infinitive, to express the end or cause of a thing; and after trop or assez.
30. All Active Verbs govern an Accusative case.
31. Passive Verbs generally govern a Genitive Case; as, Etre aime de Dieu; particularly when they express a motion or passion of the mind.
32. When they express an action of the body, par is used; as, Il est pris par l’ennemi.
33. Verbs of giving and taking away govern an Accusative and a Dative; as, Donner la gloire a Dieu.
34. Participles in ant are indeclinable.
35. And so are Participles,
(1.)When followed by an Infinitive Mood; as, Elle s’est fait peindre: (2.)When used actively with avoir, unless a Pronoun in the Accusative Case follow; as, Je l’ai veue.
36. After the Adverbs plus and moins, de (not que) is to be used; as, Il a plus de vingt ans.