Amos · Chapter 1

V. 1. He saw-Received by revelation. Israel-The kingdom of the ten tribes. Jeroboam-The great grand-son of Jehu. The earth-quake-Of which, only this text, and Zechariah 14:5, make any particular mention.

Verse 1. The words of Amos] This person and the father of Isaiah, though named alike in our translation, were as different in their names as in their persons. The father of Isaiah, xwma Amots; the prophet before us, swm[ Amos. The first, aleph, mem, vau, tsaddi; the second, ain, mem, vau, samech. For some account of this prophet see the introduction. Among the herdmen] He seems to have been among the very lowest orders of life, a herdsman, one who tended the flocks of others in the open fields, and a gatherer of sycamore fruit. Of whatever species this was, whether a kind of fig, it is evident that it was wild fruit; and he probably collected it for his own subsistence, or to dispose of either for the service of his employer, or to increase his scanty wages.

Before the earthquake.] Probably the same as that referred to Zechariah 14:5, if הרעש haraash do not mean some popular tumult.

Verse 1. The words of Amos — This inscription, and some similar ones prefixed to some of the books of the prophets, seem to have been formed by those who collected their writings together. Which he saw — Received by revelation; concerning Israel — Namely, the kingdom of the ten tribes, to which this prophecy chiefly refers; although the prophet briefly denounces God’s judgments against Judah, and also against the Syrians, Philistines, and other neighbouring countries. In the days of Uzziah king of Judah — Called Azariah in the second book of Kings, chap. 15. And in the days of Jeroboam — The great-grandson of Jehu. Two years, before the earthquake — Of which only this text, and Zechariah 14:5, make particular mention; but it is thought to be referred to, Isaiah 5:25. And Josephus, who attributes it to Uzziah’s invasion of the priest’s office, recorded 2 Chronicles 26:16, gives us some account of its effects.

Verse 1. The words of Amos, written with his own hand. He does not name his parents, because they were plain country people. He was himself among the herdmen of Tekoa, a small city twelve miles south of Jerusalem, 2 Chronicles 11:5, 6, 20:20, and was called of God, like David from the flocks, and Elisha from the plow, to be a prophet of the Lord. This is Jehovah’s right, a right he never surrendered, either to the synagogue or the vatican at Rome.

Two years before the earthquake. This refers to the earthquake in the days of Uzziah king of Judah, mentioned in Zechariah 14:5, when the people fled from the falling houses to the fields, where they were not exposed to double danger. We smile at Josephus for reporting the rabbinical figment, that this convulsion of nature was caused by Uzziah’s burning incense! The leprosy which followed was the punishment named in the scriptures;—why then add more? Pliny names an earthquake which destroyed twelve cities of Asia.

The new science of Geology has laid open a large field of knowledge with regard to the subterranean world. The mountain ranges are cavernous, and abound with streams, rivers and lakes. In other places, where lime, iron and sulphur predominate, they become volcanic, and the earth is ventilated by craters and rivers, which open in the bottom of the sea; for those rivers are always accompanied with currents of air.

When inundations of water break out on the lava, the conflict is tremendous, and the crater becomes active. When the water is abundant, the expansion of the vapour is so powerful as either to burst the superior strata of the incumbent earth, or cause the lava to leap out of its bed, overflow the mouth of the crater, or as in Etna, to burst out of the side of the mountain in a continuous river of fire. The whole phenomena is natural, but heaven can employ it at pleasure to punish the inhabitants of the earth.—The more tremendous strokes of earthquakes are so terrific as to form the æras of history. A well-written account of earthquakes may be seen in the British Encyclopædia.

V. 2. Will roar-Alluding to the roaring of an hungry lion for prey. Jerusalem-The city God had chosen where he dwelt, the seat of God’s instituted worship, and the royal seat of the kingdom as God had settled it, from which in both respects the ten tribes had revolted. The habitations-Where the shepherds found pasturage they pitch their tents, and dwelt therein that they might attend their flocks. And this was the delight and wealth of these men; alluding to which Amos expresses the wealth and delight of the kingdom of Israel. Shall wither-Either blasted, or dried up with drought, and turned into barrenness. So the whole kingdom of the ten tribes, though as fruitful as Carmel should be made horrid and desolate as a wilderness.

Verse 2. The Lord will roar from Zion] It is a pity that our translators had not followed the hemistich form of the Hebrew:—

Jehovah from Zion shall roar,

And from Jerusalem shall give forth his voice;

And the pleasant dwellings of the shepherds shall mourn,

And the top of mount Carmel shall wither.

Carmel was a very fruitful mountain in the tribe of Judah, Joshua 15:56; Isaiah 35:2.

This introduction was natural in the mouth of a herdsman who was familiar with the roaring of lions, the bellowing of bulls, and the lowing of kine. The roaring of the lion in the forest is one of the most terrific sounds in nature; when near, it strikes terror into the heart of both man and beast.

Verse 2. The Lord will roar from Zion — This and the next clause occur, Joel 3:16, and a similar one, Jeremiah 25:30, where see the notes. The meaning is, that God would soon spread terror, like beasts of prey when they roar, chap. 3:8: or, that he would soon display his power in executing judgment. And utter his voice from Jerusalem — The city God had chosen, where he dwelt; the seat of his instituted worship, and the royal seat of the kingdom, as God had settled it, but from which, in both respects, the ten tribes had revolted. The habitations of the shepherds shall mourn — The shepherds were wont to pitch their tents where they found pasturage, and to dwell therein, that they might attend their flocks. But it is here foretold, that the pasture-ground should wither and become barren, through a drought which would take place, and of which the prophet speaks, chap. 4:7, 8. Carmel was a mountainous tract of ground, which ran through the two tribes of Issachar and Zebulon. It is often described as one of the most fruitful places in all Judea: see Isaiah 33:9, and 35:2: upon which account the word is sometimes taken appellatively, and translated a fruitful field.

THE PROLOGUE — THE APPROACHING JUDGMENT, CHAPS. 1, 2.

Substance and form combine to prove that chapters 1 and 2 constitute one connected whole. Following the title (Amos 1:1) and the preface (Amos 1:2) comes a preparatory section (Amos 1:3-2:5), leading up to the central thought, the condemnation of Israel (Amos 2:6-16). Every listener would give his assent that the surrounding non-Israelitish nations, Damascus (Amos 1:3-5), Philistia (Amos 1:6-8), Phoenicia (Amos 1:9, 10), Edom (1:11, 12), Ammon (Amos 1:13-15), and Moab (Amos 2:1-3), were deserving the wrath of Jehovah; they would even agree that Judah, since the division more or less hostile to the north, merited punishment (Amos 2:4, 5). Hence these denunciations would awaken a ready response and win the good will of the prophet’s hearers. Having accomplished this, he burst forth in Amos 2:6-16, in the message for which he had been preparing the way, denunciation and judgment upon Israel. By their silent consent to the condemnation of the other nations they had pronounced the sentence of doom upon themselves.

It is to be noted that Amos is not partial to Israel; he does not condemn the surrounding nations exclusively for sins committed against Israel, but for sins against commonly recognized principles of humaneness and morality (Amos 2:1). The guilt of Israel is greater because of its special privileges. Even in this section Amos emphasizes the two central truths of his theology, that Jehovah is God over all, and that he governs all in righteousness.

1. Title. Each prophetic book has a title, sometimes brief (Obadiah 1:1), sometimes running through several verses (Jeremiah 1:1ff.). This title indicates the name, home, occupation, and approximate date of the author, and the nation in whose interest he prophesied. Words of Amos — Of the other prophetic books only Jeremiah contains a similar expression, “words of Jeremiah,” that is, the prophecies are assigned primarily to their human author; everywhere else it is stated or implied that the primary author is God: “The word of Jehovah” (Hosea 1:1; Joel 1:1, etc.); “The vision of Isaiah” (Amos 1:1; compare Obadiah 1:1; Nahum 1:1), granted by Jehovah; “The burden” (Habakkuk 1:1; compare Nahum 1:1; Malachi 1:1), imposed by Jehovah. It does not follow, however, that the utterances of Amos and Jeremiah are less divine than those of the other prophets (compare Jeremiah 1:2, “to whom the word of Jehovah came”; Amos 1:1, “which he saw”; Amos 1:3, “Thus saith Jehovah,” compare Amos 7:14). A rabbinical tradition says that the peculiarity is due to and is a rebuke of the fault-finding spirit of Amos and Jeremiah. Herdmen — Literally, nakad-keepers (see p. 192). Tekoa — See p. 191. Israel — The northern kingdom, to which Amos was sent (Amos 7:15). He saw — See on Habakkuk 1:1. On the chronological data see pp. 195f. The relative clause “who was among the herdmen (of Tekoa)” is thought by some to be a later, though historically reliable, addition.

2. Preface. A verse by itself, containing a general announcement of judgment. It is but loosely connected with its context; hence it has been claimed that Amos borrowed it from Joel. This cannot be, since Joel is later than Amos. The more recent commentators regard the verse a late interpolation in Amos, dependent on Joel 3:16. Proof of this is lacking; it is equally possible that the passage in Joel is dependent on Amos, especially since the thought of the former is an expansion and exaggeration of that of the latter. Harper advances six reasons against the authenticity of the verse, but not one of them carries conviction. As a preparation for the more detailed delineation of judgment, which is the substance of the book, the verse is not inappropriate. A Judaean prophet would naturally consider Zion the center of Jehovah’s activity; Carmel, which feels the heaviest blow, is a locality in the north, whither Amos was sent. Roar — The figure is that of a lion roaring as he leaps upon his prey; therefore a herald of imminent destruction. Utter his voice — Thunder (Psalm 18:13; 46:6, etc.), proclaiming the breaking forth of a destructive tempest. Both phrases express the idea of God’s manifestation in awful judgment (compare Jeremiah 25:30). Zion… Jerusalem — The earthly habitation of Jehovah, from which his manifestations proceed.

2b calls attention to the consequences of the divine manifestation. Habitations — R.V., “pastures” (Joel 2:22; Psalm 23:2). A pastoral term, equivalent to homestead, including both land and dwellings. Mourn — Partly in consternation (Amos 8:8; 9:5) when they hear the roar of Jehovah, partly in grief over the destruction wrought and impending. Top of Carmel — In Hebrew with the article, “the Carmel,” that is, “the garden land.” A mountain ridge in Israel, about twelve miles long, varying in height from five hundred to eighteen hundred feet, running from southeast to northwest, and projecting into the Mediterranean. It is famous because of the events described in 1 Kings 18. Its name was given to it on account of its beauty and fertility (Amos 9:3), which in a measure it still retains. Its top is filled with luxuriant growth of every kind. Wither — Or, dry up. No more vivid picture of destruction could be painted (Isaiah 33:9; Nahum 1:4). “As the blood runs cold through terror, so Amos pictures the sap of the plants and trees as ceasing to flow when Jehovah’s thunder is heard pealing over the land” (compare Joel 3:16).

V. 3. For three-This certain number is put for an uncertain: three, that is, many. Of Damascus-Here Damascus is put for the whole kingdom of Syria. Threshed-Treated it with the utmost cruelty. Gilead-There was a country of this name, and a city, possessed by the Reubenites, Gadites, and Manassites; Gilead here is put for the inhabitants of this country and city, whom Hazael, king of Syria most barbarously murdered.

Verse 3. For three transgressions of Damascus, and for four] These expressions of three and four, so often repeated in this chapter, mean repetition, abundance, and any thing that goes towards excess. Very, very exceedingly; and so it was used among the ancient Greek and Latin poets. See the passionate exclamation of Ulysses, in the storm, Odyss., lib. v., ver. 306:—

Triv makarev Davaoi kai tetrakiv, oi tot~ olonto Troih en eureih, carin Atreidhsi ferontev. “Thrice happy Greeks! and four times who were slain In Atreus’ cause, upon the Trojan plain.” Which words Virgil translates, and puts in the mouth of his hero in similar circumstances, Æn. i. 93.

Extemplo Æneæ solvuntur frigore membra:

Ingemit; et, duplicis tendens ad sidera palmas, Talia voce refert: O terque quaterque beati! Queis ante ora patrum Trojæ sub mœnibus altis Contigit oppetere.

“Struck with unusual fright, the Trojan chief With lifted hands and eyes invokes relief. And thrice, and four times happy those, he cried, That under Ilion’s walls before their parents died.” DRYDEN.

On the words, O terque quaterque, SERVIUS makes this remark, “Hoc est sæpias; finitus numerous pro infinito.” “O thrice and four times, that is, very often, a finite number for an infinite.” Other poets use the same form of expression. So SENECA in Hippolyt., Act. ii. 694. O ter quaterque prospero fato dati,

Quos hausit, et peremit, et leto dedit

Odium dolusque!

“O thrice and four times happy were the men Whom hate devoured, and fraud, hard pressing on, Gave as a prey to death.”

And so the ancient oracle quoted by Pausanias, Achaic., lib. vii., c. 6: Triv makarev keinoi kai tetrakiv andrev esntai; “Those men shall be thrice and four times happy.”

These quotations are sufficient to show that this form of speech is neither unfrequent nor inelegant, being employed by the most correct writers of antiquity.

Damascus was the capital of Syria.

Verse 3. For three transgressions, &c. — The prophet first denounces judgments against foreign countries, and afterward comes to Judah and Israel. He begins with Syria, the head or capital city of which was Damascus. By the expression, for three transgressions and for four, used here, and repeatedly afterward, he means, many or multiplied transgressions, a certain number being put, according to a very common way of speaking, for an uncertain. So we read, Job. 5:19, He shall deliver thee in six troubles; yea, in seven no evil shall touch thee: see the like phrase, Proverbs 6:16; Ecclesiastes 11:2; Micah 5:5. Once and twice are used, Psalm 62:11; twice and thrice, Job 33:29, (Hebrews) So that the meaning here is, that on account of the frequent transgressions of Damascus, God was now resolved no longer to spare it. Because they have thrashed Gilead, &c. — This alludes to the thrashing-drag, or thrashing-wain, used in the eastern countries, and described in the note on Isaiah 28:27, which see. These instruments, being drawn by horses, or oxen, over the corn-sheaves spread on the floor, were proper and significant emblems of the tyrannical power of Syria, which cruelly oppressed and crushed the weak Gileadites, and other Israelites. It is probable that the cruelties exercised on them by Hazael and Ben-hadad, kings of Syria, are chiefly intended. The fact is recorded 2 Kings 10:32, 33, and 13:3-7, where it is said that Hazael made them like the dust by thrashing.

Ver. 3. For three transgressions I will not turn away. The style of this inspired shepherd is highly classical, though plain. Homer, in his Odyssea, pronounces the Greeks thrice, yea four times blessed. And Virgil, imitating him in his Æneid, uses the number three and four in the . same form as Homer. O terque quaterque beati. Oh thrice, yea four times blessed. This mode of speaking denotes the deepest stain of crimes; just as holy, holy, holy, called by grammarians the super-superlative, marks the sublimest holiness. For these sins God would neither revoke nor mitigate the sentence. Some put the number three and four together, which make seven, a number of perfection, often used in the sacred writings.

3-5. The sin and punishment of Damascus. Thus saith Jehovah — A solemn formula repeated before each denunciation (Amos 1:6, 9, 11, 13; 2:1, 4, 6). The prophet desires to make it plain that in all he says he is the spokesman of Jehovah (compare Zechariah 1:3). Three… four — There is no reason for thinking that Amos had in mind three or four specific transgressions which exhausted the patience of Jehovah, as Kimchi undertook to show: (1) the campaign against Baasha (1 Kings 15:18ff.), (2) against Ahab (1 Kings 20:1ff.), (3) against Jehoahaz (2 Kings 13:3), (4) against Ahaz of Judah (2 Kings 16:5, 6). The last one took place about twenty-five years after this prophecy was delivered. The numbers must be explained as ascending enumeration (see on Hosea 6:2); the prophet wants to say that the measure of their guilt is more than full. Transgressions — More correctly, rebellions. Damascus — The capital of Syria, here representing the whole country. The beginnings of the hostility between Israel and Syria may be traced to the days of Solomon, when Rezon established himself in Damascus and became “an adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon” (1 Kings 11:23-25). The Syrian power increased steadily, until in the ninth century B.C. Syria became the most powerful nation in western Asia and seriously troubled Israel. In Amos’s days its prestige had begun to decline, Jeroboam II having waged successful war against Damascus (2 Kings 14:25, 26; compare 13:25). I will not turn away the punishment thereof — Literally, I will not turn it back. The object must be supplied from the context. Since it is left so indefinite there has been great difference of opinion with regard to it. The more important interpretations are, “I will not convert it,” that is, Damascus; “I will not revoke it,” that is, the wrath of Jehovah, or the resulting sentence of judgment, or a threat uttered at an earlier period and now recalled by Amos. The English translation gives a correct interpretation by adding “punishment.” Because — Introduces a typical example of the transgressions of Damascus. Threshed — Literally, tread down. One primitive method of threshing was to make animals tread out the grain with their feet (Micah 4:13; Deuteronomy 25:4). Even when other methods of threshing were adopted the term was retained. With threshing instruments of iron — The threshing machines to which reference is here made are described by Thomson in The Land and the Book, ii, p. 315, as follows: “The most common mode of threshing is with the ordinary slab, called mowrej, which is drawn over the floor by a horse or yoke of oxen, until not only the grain is shelled out, but the straw itself is ground up into chaff. To facilitate this operation bits of rough lava (or iron teeth, Isaiah 41:15, 16) are fastened into the bottom of the mowrej, and the driver sits or stands upon it.… The Egyptian mowrej is a little different from this, having rollers which revolve on the grain, and the driver has a seat upon it.… In the plains of Hamath I saw this machine improved by having circular saws attached to the rollers.” Whether the prophet means that the Syrians actually used these instruments to torture captives, or whether he simply uses the expressions to give a vivid description of cruelties of every sort is not certain (compare 2 Kings 13:7; Proverbs 20:26). Gilead — In the narrow sense, the east Jordan territory between the Yarmuk and the Arnon (Deuteronomy 3:13), in the broader sense, the whole Hebrew territory east of the Jordan; so here, equivalent to “inhabitants of Gilead.” Gilead, being nearest to Syria, would suffer first in the case of a Syrian invasion. The prophet may have in mind the invasion under Hazael during the latter half of the ninth century (compare 2 Kings 8-13).

V. 4. Ben-hadad-Ben-hadad was to the Syrian kings a common name, as Pharaoh to the Egyptian kings, and Caesar to the Roman emperors.

Verse 4. Ben-hadad.] He was son and successor of Hazael. See the cruelties which they exercised upon the Israelites, 2 Kings 10:32; 13:7, &c., and see especially 2 Kings 8:12, where these cruelties are predicted.

The fire threatened here is the war so successfully carried on against the Syrians by Jeroboam II., in which he took Damascus and Hamath, and reconquered all the ancient possessions of Israel. See 2 Kings 14:25, 26, 28.

Verses 4, 5. But I will send a fire into the house of Hazael — God’s judgments are often compared to fire. But perhaps the expression may here signify, that the fine palaces of Hazael, and his son and successor Ben-hadad, should be burned down, as they probably were in the taking of Damascus by Tiglath-pileser. I will break also the bar of Damascus — The gates and fortifications thereof, in which its strength consists, shall be broken down: and cut off the inhabitant from the plain of Aven — Or, Bikath-aven. The word signifies, the plain of vanity; from whence some conjecture it was a place in Syria remarkable for idolatry, as Beth-el was called Beth-aven for the idolatry practised there. And him that holdeth the sceptre from the house of Eden — That is, the house of pleasure. Probably one of the pleasant palaces of the kings of Syria is intended. But Eden was likewise a country bordering on Syria, mentioned 2 Kings 19:12; Ezekiel 27:23. And the people of Syria shall go into captivity — All this was fulfilled when Tiglath-pileser took Damascus, and carried the people captive to Kir, and slew Rezin their king: see the margin.

Ver. 4. Ben-hadad succeeded his father Hazael on the throne of Syria. 2 Kings 13:3, 24.

4, 5. Jehovah cannot endure the perpetration of such cruelties. The form which the announcement of judgment takes is practically the same in each case (Amos 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5; compare Hosea 8:14). Fire — Symbol of war and its horrors. House of Hazael — Not “dynasty,” but “palace” or “city” or “land” of Hazael (compare Hosea 8:1; 9:15). Hazael usurped the throne of Damascus about 843 B.C. (2 Kings 8:7ff.); he was the contemporary of Kings Joram, Jehu, and Jehoahaz, and inflicted heavy defeats upon all three. Since he was the founder of the then ruling dynasty, Amos calls Syria “the house of Hazael,” just as Israel is called in Assyrian inscriptions “the house of Omri.” Ben-hadad — Three kings of Damascus by that name are definitely known, two preceding Hazael, the third his son and successor (2 Kings 13:3, 25). The allusion may be to the third, who in time was nearest to Amos, though it is not likely that he was then on the throne. However, it is not impossible that the reigning monarch bore the same name. Some suggest that Hazael and Ben-hadad are mentioned simply as typical, representative names of Syrian kings without reference to any particular monarch; still others think that Ben-hadad (that is, the son of the deity Hadad) was a title of the Syrian kings as Pharaoh was of the Egyptian rulers. Bar — The bar of iron or bronze used to fasten the gates of ancient cities; here a symbol of defense in general. No human defenses can stand against the wrath of Jehovah. Inhabitant — R.V. margin, “him that sitteth on the throne” (Isaiah 10:3) — the ruler; which is preferable, in view of the parallel, “him that holdeth the scepter” — the reigning monarch (Judges 5:14). The rulers will be smitten; only in the last clause of verse 5 is the fate of the people indicated. The plain [“valley”] of Aven — R.V. margin, “of Vanity,” or Idolatry. LXX. reads “On” for “Aven,” which presupposes a different vocalization of the same Hebrew consonants. This reading, indecisive though it may be in view of the LXX. rendering of the same word in Hosea 4:15; 5:8; 10:5, 8, pointed the way to the now almost universally accepted explanation. The word translated “valley” is used even to-day as a proper noun, denoting the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon (Joshua 11:17), in Arabic el-Buka’a. In this valley, about sixty miles north-northeast of Dan, are located the ruins of Baal-bek, the ancient Heliopolis, formerly, as its name indicates, a center of sun worship. According to two ancient authorities, Macrobius and Lucian, sun worship was introduced in the Syrian Heliopolis from Heliopolis in Egypt. The Egyptian name of Heliopolis in Egypt is Aunu, Hebrews On (Genesis 41:45, 50; 46:20). This name may have been brought, with the sun worship, from Egypt to Syria, and at one time Heliopolis in Syria may have been known as On. If this is the correct interpretation, instead of “valley of Aven” we should read Buka’a-On, or “valley of On,” the valley around the city On. Intentionally the word was changed by Amos or a later copyist into “vanity” to express contempt for the worship practiced there. The house of Eden — Margin, “Beth-eden,” making the two words the name of a locality. A village Edhen is located about twenty miles northwest of Baal-bek, which may have served as a summer residence to the Syrian kings. Though the place mentioned by Amos has often been identified with this village, it is more likely that he has in mind a district mentioned frequently in the Assyrian inscriptions and called Bit-adini. This district is about two hundred miles north-northeast of Damascus on both sides of the Euphrates (2 Kings 19:12; Ezekiel 27:23), and may have been at one time a vassal state of Damascus. If this is the correct interpretation, the prophet says that the chief ruler in Damascus as well as the vassal princes will be smitten by the divine judgment, while the people will be carried into exile. Kir — Amos 9:7, makes Kir the original home of the Syrians. According to 2 Kings 16:9, the prediction was fulfilled in less than a generation; but it is to be noted that LXX. in the passage in Kings omits “Kir.” Tiglath-pileser III states that he took Damascus (in 732), and that he carried a large proportion of its inhabitants into exile, but the place of exile is omitted. Kir is mentioned again in Isaiah 22:6. Concerning its location opinions vary. It has been identified most commonly with a district of Armenia, near the river Kur, which flows into the Caspian Sea; but this district does not appear to have been a part of Assyria in the days of Tiglath-pileser. At least ten other identifications have been proposed, not one of which can be considered entirely satisfactory.

Amos does not state by whom he expected the judgment to be executed; nevertheless, it is very probable that he was thinking of the Assyrians, the most powerful nation in his day. As a matter of history, after several unsuccessful attempts the Assyrians, under Tiglath-pileser, finally did overthrow the Syrian power in 732, captured Damascus, put to death King Rezin, and carried thousands of its inhabitants into exile.

V. 5. The bar-Literally the bar with which the city gates were shut, and fastened. Of Eden-Some royal seat, of the kings of Syria. Kir-Kir of Media, Isaiah 22:6, thither did Tiglath-Pilneser carry the conquered Syrians, 2 Kings 16:9, and placed them captives in that barren mountainous country, about fifteen years after it was foretold by Amos.

Verse 5. The bar of Damascus] The gates, whose long traverse bars, running from wall to wall, were their strength. I will throw it open; and the gates were forced, and the city taken, as above.

The plain of Aven—the house of Eden] These are names, says Bochart, of the valley of Damascus. The plain of Aven, or Birkath-Aven, Calmet says, is a city of Syria, at present called Baal-Bek, and by the Greeks Heliopolis; and is situated at the end of that long valley which extends from south to north, between Libanus and Anti-Libanus.

The people of Syria shall go into captivity unto Kir] KIR is supposed to be the country of Cyrene in Albania, on the river Cyrus, which empties itself into the Caspian Sea. The fulfilment of this prophecy may be seen in 2 Kings 16:1-9.

Verses 4, 5. But I will send a fire into the house of Hazael — God’s judgments are often compared to fire. But perhaps the expression may here signify, that the fine palaces of Hazael, and his son and successor Ben-hadad, should be burned down, as they probably were in the taking of Damascus by Tiglath-pileser. I will break also the bar of Damascus — The gates and fortifications thereof, in which its strength consists, shall be broken down: and cut off the inhabitant from the plain of Aven — Or, Bikath-aven. The word signifies, the plain of vanity; from whence some conjecture it was a place in Syria remarkable for idolatry, as Beth-el was called Beth-aven for the idolatry practised there. And him that holdeth the sceptre from the house of Eden — That is, the house of pleasure. Probably one of the pleasant palaces of the kings of Syria is intended. But Eden was likewise a country bordering on Syria, mentioned 2 Kings 19:12; Ezekiel 27:23. And the people of Syria shall go into captivity — All this was fulfilled when Tiglath-pileser took Damascus, and carried the people captive to Kir, and slew Rezin their king: see the margin.

Ver. 5. Kir is said to be the same with Cyrene; but others say it is a part of Albania. This scourge was inflicted on Syria by Salmanezer, as may be gathered from Isaiah 16:4. Pharaoh-necho, and after him Nebuchadnezzar, overran this country.

4, 5. Jehovah cannot endure the perpetration of such cruelties. The form which the announcement of judgment takes is practically the same in each case (Amos 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5; compare Hosea 8:14). Fire — Symbol of war and its horrors. House of Hazael — Not “dynasty,” but “palace” or “city” or “land” of Hazael (compare Hosea 8:1; 9:15). Hazael usurped the throne of Damascus about 843 B.C. (2 Kings 8:7ff.); he was the contemporary of Kings Joram, Jehu, and Jehoahaz, and inflicted heavy defeats upon all three. Since he was the founder of the then ruling dynasty, Amos calls Syria “the house of Hazael,” just as Israel is called in Assyrian inscriptions “the house of Omri.” Ben-hadad — Three kings of Damascus by that name are definitely known, two preceding Hazael, the third his son and successor (2 Kings 13:3, 25). The allusion may be to the third, who in time was nearest to Amos, though it is not likely that he was then on the throne. However, it is not impossible that the reigning monarch bore the same name. Some suggest that Hazael and Ben-hadad are mentioned simply as typical, representative names of Syrian kings without reference to any particular monarch; still others think that Ben-hadad (that is, the son of the deity Hadad) was a title of the Syrian kings as Pharaoh was of the Egyptian rulers. Bar — The bar of iron or bronze used to fasten the gates of ancient cities; here a symbol of defense in general. No human defenses can stand against the wrath of Jehovah. Inhabitant — R.V. margin, “him that sitteth on the throne” (Isaiah 10:3) — the ruler; which is preferable, in view of the parallel, “him that holdeth the scepter” — the reigning monarch (Judges 5:14). The rulers will be smitten; only in the last clause of verse 5 is the fate of the people indicated. The plain [“valley”] of Aven — R.V. margin, “of Vanity,” or Idolatry. LXX. reads “On” for “Aven,” which presupposes a different vocalization of the same Hebrew consonants. This reading, indecisive though it may be in view of the LXX. rendering of the same word in Hosea 4:15; 5:8; 10:5, 8, pointed the way to the now almost universally accepted explanation. The word translated “valley” is used even to-day as a proper noun, denoting the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon (Joshua 11:17), in Arabic el-Buka’a. In this valley, about sixty miles north-northeast of Dan, are located the ruins of Baal-bek, the ancient Heliopolis, formerly, as its name indicates, a center of sun worship. According to two ancient authorities, Macrobius and Lucian, sun worship was introduced in the Syrian Heliopolis from Heliopolis in Egypt. The Egyptian name of Heliopolis in Egypt is Aunu, Hebrews On (Genesis 41:45, 50; 46:20). This name may have been brought, with the sun worship, from Egypt to Syria, and at one time Heliopolis in Syria may have been known as On. If this is the correct interpretation, instead of “valley of Aven” we should read Buka’a-On, or “valley of On,” the valley around the city On. Intentionally the word was changed by Amos or a later copyist into “vanity” to express contempt for the worship practiced there. The house of Eden — Margin, “Beth-eden,” making the two words the name of a locality. A village Edhen is located about twenty miles northwest of Baal-bek, which may have served as a summer residence to the Syrian kings. Though the place mentioned by Amos has often been identified with this village, it is more likely that he has in mind a district mentioned frequently in the Assyrian inscriptions and called Bit-adini. This district is about two hundred miles north-northeast of Damascus on both sides of the Euphrates (2 Kings 19:12; Ezekiel 27:23), and may have been at one time a vassal state of Damascus. If this is the correct interpretation, the prophet says that the chief ruler in Damascus as well as the vassal princes will be smitten by the divine judgment, while the people will be carried into exile. Kir — Amos 9:7, makes Kir the original home of the Syrians. According to 2 Kings 16:9, the prediction was fulfilled in less than a generation; but it is to be noted that LXX. in the passage in Kings omits “Kir.” Tiglath-pileser III states that he took Damascus (in 732), and that he carried a large proportion of its inhabitants into exile, but the place of exile is omitted. Kir is mentioned again in Isaiah 22:6. Concerning its location opinions vary. It has been identified most commonly with a district of Armenia, near the river Kur, which flows into the Caspian Sea; but this district does not appear to have been a part of Assyria in the days of Tiglath-pileser. At least ten other identifications have been proposed, not one of which can be considered entirely satisfactory.

Amos does not state by whom he expected the judgment to be executed; nevertheless, it is very probable that he was thinking of the Assyrians, the most powerful nation in his day. As a matter of history, after several unsuccessful attempts the Assyrians, under Tiglath-pileser, finally did overthrow the Syrian power in 732, captured Damascus, put to death King Rezin, and carried thousands of its inhabitants into exile.

V. 6. Carried away-All the Jews whom they had taken captive. Edom-Their most inveterate enemies. These Edomites were ever ready to enslave, and tyrannize over the Jews, if by any means they could get them into their hands.

Verse 6. They carried away captive] Gaza is well known to have been one of the five lordships of the Philistines; it lay on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, near to Egypt. Erkon, Ashdod, and Askelon, were other signories of the same people, which are here equally threatened with Gaza. The captivity mentioned here may refer to inroads and incursions made by the Philistines in times of peace. See 2 Chronicles 21:16. The margin reads, an entire captivity. They took all away; none of them afterwards returned.

Verses 6-8. For three transgressions of Gaza, &c. — From Syria he passes to Palestine, upon the coast of which Gaza was situated. It is one of the places threatened by Joel 3:6. Because they carried away the whole captivity — Or, a peaceable captivity, as Mr. Locke renders hmlv twlg; that is, a captivity not taken in war, but by deceit: or, a perfect captivity, that is, not to be recovered. It appears, from 2 Chronicles 21:16, and 28:18, that the Philistines (for the town of Gaza belonged to them) made frequent incursions upon the Jews and Israelites. And it is probable from this passage that they were guilty of some injustice and cruelty, beyond the usual practice of war, in making captives, perhaps taking the peaceable inhabitants and all without distinction, the old and infirm as well as the young and healthy: or, making these incursions when Judah and Israel were at peace with them. Or, perhaps, their cruelty consisted in selling those they made captives to the Edomites, whom they knew to be mortal enemies of the Jews, and consequently, they might reasonably suppose, would treat them with great severity and tyranny. But I will send a fire, &c. — What is here foretold respecting the destruction of the cities of the Philistines, was fulfilled by Hezekiah, 2 Kings 18:8. The same was predicted by Isaiah, chap. 14:29. And the remnant of the Philistines shall perish — These were cut off by the Assyrians: see Isaiah 20.

6-8. The sin and punishment of Philistia. Three… four — See on verse 3. Gaza — The southernmost city of Philistia and splendidly located for trade; about fifty miles southwest of Jerusalem, and three miles from the sea. Being just on the edge of the desert, it became a commercial center, commanding the caravan routes to Syria, to Egypt, and to Arabia. Its present population is said to number about eighteen thousand. Here the city represents the whole of Philistia; it is possible, however, that Gaza was most guilty; its location would naturally make it the center of slave trade with Edom. The whole captivity — R.V., “the whole people”; literally, an entire captivity. The meaning is that they spared neither sex nor age; they took the entire population of the places attacked. The reference is probably not to a national invasion (2 Chronicles 21:16, 17), but to raids undertaken for the specific purpose of securing slaves. Deliver them up to Edom — The Edomites probably resold the slaves. The same charge is brought against Tyre (verse 9), and a similar charge against both in Joel 3:4-6. It is not stated here that the communities attacked were Hebrew. On Edom see verse 11. Fire — As in verse 4. Inhabitant — See on verse 5. Ashdod — About twenty-one miles north-northeast of Gaza, about three miles from the seacoast, a strong fortress on the caravan route from Gaza to Joppa. It suffered from an Egyptian siege about 650 B.C., but recovered and was a place of importance at the time of Nehemiah; now a small village called Esdud. Holdeth the scepter — The chief cities of the Philistines each had its own king (see below and on Joel 3:4). Ashkelon — Was located on the seacoast, about halfway between Gaza and Ashdod; it is mentioned on the Tel-el-Amarna tablets (about 1400 B.C.), now an insignificant place called Askelan. Turn mine hand against — As long as God leaves man to himself his hand is said to rest; to turn his hand is to take an active interest in man’s affairs, either to save or to punish (Isaiah 1:25; Zechariah 13:7); here to punish. Ekron — An inland city, about twelve miles northeast of Ashdod, and nearer to the territory of Judah than any of the other cities; it was the seat of an oracle (2 Kings 1:2), but otherwise it is of little importance in the Old Testament; now Akir, on the railway from Joppa to Jerusalem. The remnant — All in the districts enumerated who escape the destruction announced and the inhabitants of the parts of Philistia not included in the four districts mentioned. Philistia was divided into five city states, independent in times of peace, usually united in times of war; four of these centers are named here. Why not the fifth, Gath? If it was still prominent in Amos’s day it must be included in the remnant; there certainly was no reason why Amos must mention it by name; and the omission does not prove, as some think, that the city was already destroyed (2 Kings 12:17; see further on Amos 6:2).

The four cities mentioned suffered severely from the Assyrians subsequent to the delivery of this threat. Gaza was attacked by Tiglath-pileser in 734 and was compelled to pay a heavy tribute. Ashdod refused in 711 to pay tribute imposed at an earlier date; in punishment the city was reduced and its inhabitants exiled. In 701 both Ashkelon and Ekron joined in the revolt against Sennacherib and were severely dealt with. However, all four cities seem to have become again more or less powerful; all are named as tributaries to the later Assyrian kings, Esar-haddon and Ashur-banapal (compare Nehemiah 4:7; 13:23, 24; Zechariah 9:5-7). Saith the Lord Jehovah — A reiteration, for the sake of emphasis, of the truth that Amos was commissioned by Jehovah to deliver this message. The Lord Jehovah is a favorite expression in Amos and Ezekiel; it is used rarely in the other prophetic books. Lord calls attention to Jehovah’s supremacy. On the authenticity of this oracle see pp. 221f.

V. 7. A fire-Desolating judgments. Gaza-All the power and strength of Palestine is here included.

Verses 6-8. For three transgressions of Gaza, &c. — From Syria he passes to Palestine, upon the coast of which Gaza was situated. It is one of the places threatened by Joel 3:6. Because they carried away the whole captivity — Or, a peaceable captivity, as Mr. Locke renders hmlv twlg; that is, a captivity not taken in war, but by deceit: or, a perfect captivity, that is, not to be recovered. It appears, from 2 Chronicles 21:16, and 28:18, that the Philistines (for the town of Gaza belonged to them) made frequent incursions upon the Jews and Israelites. And it is probable from this passage that they were guilty of some injustice and cruelty, beyond the usual practice of war, in making captives, perhaps taking the peaceable inhabitants and all without distinction, the old and infirm as well as the young and healthy: or, making these incursions when Judah and Israel were at peace with them. Or, perhaps, their cruelty consisted in selling those they made captives to the Edomites, whom they knew to be mortal enemies of the Jews, and consequently, they might reasonably suppose, would treat them with great severity and tyranny. But I will send a fire, &c. — What is here foretold respecting the destruction of the cities of the Philistines, was fulfilled by Hezekiah, 2 Kings 18:8. The same was predicted by Isaiah, chap. 14:29. And the remnant of the Philistines shall perish — These were cut off by the Assyrians: see Isaiah 20.

6-8. The sin and punishment of Philistia. Three… four — See on verse 3. Gaza — The southernmost city of Philistia and splendidly located for trade; about fifty miles southwest of Jerusalem, and three miles from the sea. Being just on the edge of the desert, it became a commercial center, commanding the caravan routes to Syria, to Egypt, and to Arabia. Its present population is said to number about eighteen thousand. Here the city represents the whole of Philistia; it is possible, however, that Gaza was most guilty; its location would naturally make it the center of slave trade with Edom. The whole captivity — R.V., “the whole people”; literally, an entire captivity. The meaning is that they spared neither sex nor age; they took the entire population of the places attacked. The reference is probably not to a national invasion (2 Chronicles 21:16, 17), but to raids undertaken for the specific purpose of securing slaves. Deliver them up to Edom — The Edomites probably resold the slaves. The same charge is brought against Tyre (verse 9), and a similar charge against both in Joel 3:4-6. It is not stated here that the communities attacked were Hebrew. On Edom see verse 11. Fire — As in verse 4. Inhabitant — See on verse 5. Ashdod — About twenty-one miles north-northeast of Gaza, about three miles from the seacoast, a strong fortress on the caravan route from Gaza to Joppa. It suffered from an Egyptian siege about 650 B.C., but recovered and was a place of importance at the time of Nehemiah; now a small village called Esdud. Holdeth the scepter — The chief cities of the Philistines each had its own king (see below and on Joel 3:4). Ashkelon — Was located on the seacoast, about halfway between Gaza and Ashdod; it is mentioned on the Tel-el-Amarna tablets (about 1400 B.C.), now an insignificant place called Askelan. Turn mine hand against — As long as God leaves man to himself his hand is said to rest; to turn his hand is to take an active interest in man’s affairs, either to save or to punish (Isaiah 1:25; Zechariah 13:7); here to punish. Ekron — An inland city, about twelve miles northeast of Ashdod, and nearer to the territory of Judah than any of the other cities; it was the seat of an oracle (2 Kings 1:2), but otherwise it is of little importance in the Old Testament; now Akir, on the railway from Joppa to Jerusalem. The remnant — All in the districts enumerated who escape the destruction announced and the inhabitants of the parts of Philistia not included in the four districts mentioned. Philistia was divided into five city states, independent in times of peace, usually united in times of war; four of these centers are named here. Why not the fifth, Gath? If it was still prominent in Amos’s day it must be included in the remnant; there certainly was no reason why Amos must mention it by name; and the omission does not prove, as some think, that the city was already destroyed (2 Kings 12:17; see further on Amos 6:2).

The four cities mentioned suffered severely from the Assyrians subsequent to the delivery of this threat. Gaza was attacked by Tiglath-pileser in 734 and was compelled to pay a heavy tribute. Ashdod refused in 711 to pay tribute imposed at an earlier date; in punishment the city was reduced and its inhabitants exiled. In 701 both Ashkelon and Ekron joined in the revolt against Sennacherib and were severely dealt with. However, all four cities seem to have become again more or less powerful; all are named as tributaries to the later Assyrian kings, Esar-haddon and Ashur-banapal (compare Nehemiah 4:7; 13:23, 24; Zechariah 9:5-7). Saith the Lord Jehovah — A reiteration, for the sake of emphasis, of the truth that Amos was commissioned by Jehovah to deliver this message. The Lord Jehovah is a favorite expression in Amos and Ezekiel; it is used rarely in the other prophetic books. Lord calls attention to Jehovah’s supremacy. On the authenticity of this oracle see pp. 221f.

V. 8. Ashkelon-Another city of the Philistines, and a very strong one, which shall perish with the king and the inhabitants thereof.

Verses 6-8. For three transgressions of Gaza, &c. — From Syria he passes to Palestine, upon the coast of which Gaza was situated. It is one of the places threatened by Joel 3:6. Because they carried away the whole captivity — Or, a peaceable captivity, as Mr. Locke renders hmlv twlg; that is, a captivity not taken in war, but by deceit: or, a perfect captivity, that is, not to be recovered. It appears, from 2 Chronicles 21:16, and 28:18, that the Philistines (for the town of Gaza belonged to them) made frequent incursions upon the Jews and Israelites. And it is probable from this passage that they were guilty of some injustice and cruelty, beyond the usual practice of war, in making captives, perhaps taking the peaceable inhabitants and all without distinction, the old and infirm as well as the young and healthy: or, making these incursions when Judah and Israel were at peace with them. Or, perhaps, their cruelty consisted in selling those they made captives to the Edomites, whom they knew to be mortal enemies of the Jews, and consequently, they might reasonably suppose, would treat them with great severity and tyranny. But I will send a fire, &c. — What is here foretold respecting the destruction of the cities of the Philistines, was fulfilled by Hezekiah, 2 Kings 18:8. The same was predicted by Isaiah, chap. 14:29. And the remnant of the Philistines shall perish — These were cut off by the Assyrians: see Isaiah 20.

6-8. The sin and punishment of Philistia. Three… four — See on verse 3. Gaza — The southernmost city of Philistia and splendidly located for trade; about fifty miles southwest of Jerusalem, and three miles from the sea. Being just on the edge of the desert, it became a commercial center, commanding the caravan routes to Syria, to Egypt, and to Arabia. Its present population is said to number about eighteen thousand. Here the city represents the whole of Philistia; it is possible, however, that Gaza was most guilty; its location would naturally make it the center of slave trade with Edom. The whole captivity — R.V., “the whole people”; literally, an entire captivity. The meaning is that they spared neither sex nor age; they took the entire population of the places attacked. The reference is probably not to a national invasion (2 Chronicles 21:16, 17), but to raids undertaken for the specific purpose of securing slaves. Deliver them up to Edom — The Edomites probably resold the slaves. The same charge is brought against Tyre (verse 9), and a similar charge against both in Joel 3:4-6. It is not stated here that the communities attacked were Hebrew. On Edom see verse 11. Fire — As in verse 4. Inhabitant — See on verse 5. Ashdod — About twenty-one miles north-northeast of Gaza, about three miles from the seacoast, a strong fortress on the caravan route from Gaza to Joppa. It suffered from an Egyptian siege about 650 B.C., but recovered and was a place of importance at the time of Nehemiah; now a small village called Esdud. Holdeth the scepter — The chief cities of the Philistines each had its own king (see below and on Joel 3:4). Ashkelon — Was located on the seacoast, about halfway between Gaza and Ashdod; it is mentioned on the Tel-el-Amarna tablets (about 1400 B.C.), now an insignificant place called Askelan. Turn mine hand against — As long as God leaves man to himself his hand is said to rest; to turn his hand is to take an active interest in man’s affairs, either to save or to punish (Isaiah 1:25; Zechariah 13:7); here to punish. Ekron — An inland city, about twelve miles northeast of Ashdod, and nearer to the territory of Judah than any of the other cities; it was the seat of an oracle (2 Kings 1:2), but otherwise it is of little importance in the Old Testament; now Akir, on the railway from Joppa to Jerusalem. The remnant — All in the districts enumerated who escape the destruction announced and the inhabitants of the parts of Philistia not included in the four districts mentioned. Philistia was divided into five city states, independent in times of peace, usually united in times of war; four of these centers are named here. Why not the fifth, Gath? If it was still prominent in Amos’s day it must be included in the remnant; there certainly was no reason why Amos must mention it by name; and the omission does not prove, as some think, that the city was already destroyed (2 Kings 12:17; see further on Amos 6:2).

The four cities mentioned suffered severely from the Assyrians subsequent to the delivery of this threat. Gaza was attacked by Tiglath-pileser in 734 and was compelled to pay a heavy tribute. Ashdod refused in 711 to pay tribute imposed at an earlier date; in punishment the city was reduced and its inhabitants exiled. In 701 both Ashkelon and Ekron joined in the revolt against Sennacherib and were severely dealt with. However, all four cities seem to have become again more or less powerful; all are named as tributaries to the later Assyrian kings, Esar-haddon and Ashur-banapal (compare Nehemiah 4:7; 13:23, 24; Zechariah 9:5-7). Saith the Lord Jehovah — A reiteration, for the sake of emphasis, of the truth that Amos was commissioned by Jehovah to deliver this message. The Lord Jehovah is a favorite expression in Amos and Ezekiel; it is used rarely in the other prophetic books. Lord calls attention to Jehovah’s supremacy. On the authenticity of this oracle see pp. 221f.

V. 9. The brotherly covenant-Which was between Hiram on the one part, and David and Solomon on the other.

Verse 9. Tyrus] See an ample description of this place, and of its desolation and final ruin, in the notes on Ezekiel 26:1-28:19. The brotherly covenant] This possibly refers to the very friendly league made between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre, 1 Kings 5:12; but some contend that the brotherly covenant refers to the consanguinity between the Jews and Edomites. The Tyrians, in exercising cruelties upon these, did it, in effect, on the Jews, with whom they were connected by the most intimate ties of kindred; the two people having descended from the two brothers, Jacob and Esau. See Calmet.

Verse 9. For three transgressions of Tyrus, &c. — This prediction is probably to be understood of the destruction of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar, as foretold by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel: see the margin. Because they delivered up the whole captivity to Edom — Without doubt the Edomites used the Jewish captives with great barbarity, as the delivering of these captives up to them is also assigned as a principal reason of the punishment of Tyre, as it was of the punishment of Damascus, verse 6. And remembered not the brotherly covenant — That strict league and friendship begun between David and Hiram, king of Tyre, and afterward continued by Solomon, (see the margin,) Hiram giving Solomon the title of My brother, as we read 1 Kings 9:13.

Ver. 9. Tyre, with its long siege and fall, is described in Isaiah 23. Ezekiel

26. This city was taken by Alexander, who was so provoked by its resistance that he slew all who did not take refuge in the temples, and then commanded his soldiers to throw fire into the roof of the temples.

9, 10. The sin and punishment of Phoenicia. Tyrus [“Tyre”] — The most important of the cities of Phoenicia, representing here the entire nation (see on Joel 3:4; Zechariah 9:2). The crime condemned is similar to that of Philistia. They delivered up the whole captivity [“people”] — See on verse 6. If the last clause of verse 9 is a condemnation of a second crime, independent of the slave trade, it may be correct to say that “the Phoenicians are not charged with taking captives, as are the Philistines (verse 6), but with delivering them, that is, acting as agents for those who actually took them.” However, the last clause of verse 9 may be a circumstantial clause, “without remembering the brotherly covenant.” If so, the two are brought into closer relation, and the crime condemned is most probably the taking and selling of slaves in violation of some sacred agreement. The brotherly covenant — Literally, and margin, “the covenant of brethren.” This is commonly interpreted of the covenant between Solomon and Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 5:1ff.; compare Amos 9:13). Against this interpretation Driver urges with some justice, “It is scarcely likely that the crowning offense of Tyre should be forgetfulness of a treaty entered into nearly three hundred years previously.” If the two clauses are connected, the breaking of the covenant and the taking or delivering of slaves sustain some relation to each other; when the slave raids were undertaken the breaking of a covenant was involved. It is nowhere stated that the slaves were Hebrews, or that the covenant was a covenant with Israel. Amos 2:1, makes it certain that Amos’s denunciations were not limited to sins against the chosen nation. Hence it is not unreasonable to suppose that the slaves were taken from other Phoenician or from Canaanitish communities with which the Tyrians sustained treaty relations, the breaking of which constituted the breach of the “brotherly covenant.” Tyre, being a commercial city, would find it advantageous to maintain friendly relations with its neighbors, which might be sealed by treaties, as in the case of Israel. For selfish purposes these sacred treaties were broken, and this treachery called forth the severe denunciation of the prophet. It is mere assumption to say that the covenant between Hiram and Solomon “had an especial provision against selling them (that is, captured Jews) away from their own land.”

Other prophets agree with Amos in foretelling the doom of Tyre (Isaiah 23; Jeremiah 25:22; Ezekiel 26-28; Joel 3:4; Zechariah 9:3, 4); but it was a long time before the ruin of Tyre was accomplished. The Tyrian policy, to purchase peace by the payment of heavy tribute rather than to encounter the Assyrian armies, postponed the disaster for centuries. This policy had its origin even before the time of Amos. Ashur-nasir-pal of Assyria (885-860) received tribute from Tyre and other Phoenician cities. Shalmaneser II (in 842, 839) and Tiglath-pileser III (in 734) also received tribute. Shalmaneser IV is said to have attacked the city; he was defeated on sea and a siege from the land side, after having been maintained for five years, had to be raised. Sennacherib and Esar-haddon appear to have been no more successful; but in 664 Ashur-banapal took the city by storm. It soon regained its prestige, and at a later time Nebuchadnezzar besieged the city; the siege continued for thirteen years, and its outcome is in doubt (Ezekiel 29:18). The heaviest blow fell in 332, when, after a siege of seven months, the city fell before Alexander the Great. In the taking of the city six thousand are said to have perished by the sword, two thousand to have been crucified, and thirty thousand women, children, and slaves to have been sold. It recovered rapidly and played an important role until 1291 A.D., when it fell permanently into the hands of the Saracens. Now its site is covered by an insignificant Arab village. “After having been the mother of colonies and the mistress of the seas, bearing her merchandise into otherwise unvisited lands and adjusting the supply and demand of the world, Tyre is now content, at the close of her career, to be a stagnant village in stagnant Turkey.” On the authenticity of this oracle see pp. 220ff.

Verse 10. I will send a fire on the wall of Tyrus] The destructive fire or siege by Nebuchadnezzar, which lasted thirteen years, and ended in the destruction of this ancient city; see on Ezekiel, Ezekiel 26:7-14, as above. It was finally ruined by Alexander, and is now only a place for a few poor fishermen to spread their nets upon.

9, 10. The sin and punishment of Phoenicia. Tyrus [“Tyre”] — The most important of the cities of Phoenicia, representing here the entire nation (see on Joel 3:4; Zechariah 9:2). The crime condemned is similar to that of Philistia. They delivered up the whole captivity [“people”] — See on verse 6. If the last clause of verse 9 is a condemnation of a second crime, independent of the slave trade, it may be correct to say that “the Phoenicians are not charged with taking captives, as are the Philistines (verse 6), but with delivering them, that is, acting as agents for those who actually took them.” However, the last clause of verse 9 may be a circumstantial clause, “without remembering the brotherly covenant.” If so, the two are brought into closer relation, and the crime condemned is most probably the taking and selling of slaves in violation of some sacred agreement. The brotherly covenant — Literally, and margin, “the covenant of brethren.” This is commonly interpreted of the covenant between Solomon and Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 5:1ff.; compare Amos 9:13). Against this interpretation Driver urges with some justice, “It is scarcely likely that the crowning offense of Tyre should be forgetfulness of a treaty entered into nearly three hundred years previously.” If the two clauses are connected, the breaking of the covenant and the taking or delivering of slaves sustain some relation to each other; when the slave raids were undertaken the breaking of a covenant was involved. It is nowhere stated that the slaves were Hebrews, or that the covenant was a covenant with Israel. Amos 2:1, makes it certain that Amos’s denunciations were not limited to sins against the chosen nation. Hence it is not unreasonable to suppose that the slaves were taken from other Phoenician or from Canaanitish communities with which the Tyrians sustained treaty relations, the breaking of which constituted the breach of the “brotherly covenant.” Tyre, being a commercial city, would find it advantageous to maintain friendly relations with its neighbors, which might be sealed by treaties, as in the case of Israel. For selfish purposes these sacred treaties were broken, and this treachery called forth the severe denunciation of the prophet. It is mere assumption to say that the covenant between Hiram and Solomon “had an especial provision against selling them (that is, captured Jews) away from their own land.”

Other prophets agree with Amos in foretelling the doom of Tyre (Isaiah 23; Jeremiah 25:22; Ezekiel 26-28; Joel 3:4; Zechariah 9:3, 4); but it was a long time before the ruin of Tyre was accomplished. The Tyrian policy, to purchase peace by the payment of heavy tribute rather than to encounter the Assyrian armies, postponed the disaster for centuries. This policy had its origin even before the time of Amos. Ashur-nasir-pal of Assyria (885-860) received tribute from Tyre and other Phoenician cities. Shalmaneser II (in 842, 839) and Tiglath-pileser III (in 734) also received tribute. Shalmaneser IV is said to have attacked the city; he was defeated on sea and a siege from the land side, after having been maintained for five years, had to be raised. Sennacherib and Esar-haddon appear to have been no more successful; but in 664 Ashur-banapal took the city by storm. It soon regained its prestige, and at a later time Nebuchadnezzar besieged the city; the siege continued for thirteen years, and its outcome is in doubt (Ezekiel 29:18). The heaviest blow fell in 332, when, after a siege of seven months, the city fell before Alexander the Great. In the taking of the city six thousand are said to have perished by the sword, two thousand to have been crucified, and thirty thousand women, children, and slaves to have been sold. It recovered rapidly and played an important role until 1291 A.D., when it fell permanently into the hands of the Saracens. Now its site is covered by an insignificant Arab village. “After having been the mother of colonies and the mistress of the seas, bearing her merchandise into otherwise unvisited lands and adjusting the supply and demand of the world, Tyre is now content, at the close of her career, to be a stagnant village in stagnant Turkey.” On the authenticity of this oracle see pp. 220ff.

V. 11. Pursue-Watched for, and laid hold on every occasion to oppress Israel. Did tear-As a ravenous and fierce lion tears the prey.

Verse 11. For three transgressions of Edom] That the Edomites (notwithstanding what Calmet observes above of the brotherly covenant) were always implacable enemies of the Jews, is well known; but most probably that which the prophet has in view was the part they took in distressing the Jews when Jerusalem was besieged, and finally taken, by the Chaldeans. See Obadiah 1:11-14; Ezekiel 25:12; 35:5; Psalm 137:7.

Verses 11, 12. For three transgressions of Edom, &c. — The Edomites, or Idumeans, are often threatened for their enmity against the Israelites, because they took all occasions to oppress and insult over them in their distress. Because he did pursue his brother with the sword — The Edomites retained the same hatred and animosity against their brethren, the Israelites, which their father Esau had expressed against his brother Jacob. But I will send a fire upon Teman, &c. — Teman and Bozrah were two principal cities of Idumea. The destruction here denounced against them was afterward brought upon them, in some degree, by Sennacherib, but more especially by Nebuchadnezzar: see notes on Jeremiah 49:7-22, and Ezekiel 25:15.

11, 12. The sin and punishment of Edom. Edom — The Edomite territory was located south and southeast of the Dead Sea and east of the Arabah, the deep depression connecting the southern end of the Dead Sea with the Gulf of Akabah (see on Amos 6:14). During the exile the Edomites (Idumaeans) crossed this depression and settled in southern Judah. Edom was not as fertile as Palestine or Moab, though it is described as possessing, in the days of Moses, fields, vineyards, wells, and a highway (Numbers 20:17-19). With the exception of a few places the land was not suitable for agriculture, and it yielded scarcely enough for the keeping of flocks. As a result the Edomites became desert robbers, forcing a living from the caravans passing through their territory and from the neighboring more fertile regions. They were the dread of the Hebrews during the desert wanderings (Numbers 20:14ff.) and during a large part of their national history. His brother — Israel (see on Obadiah 1:10). Pursue… with the sword — An apt characterization of the relation between Israel and Edom throughout their entire history (Numbers 20; Obadiah 1:10-14; Psalm 137:7; compare Joel 3:19; Malachi 1:2-5). This hostility merited the greater condemnation because the two nations were related so intimately. It is not necessary to suppose that the prophet had in mind any specific outbreak, though analogy with the other denunciations would point in that direction. A revolt against Judah is mentioned in 2 Kings 8:20-22; but others, unrecorded in the Old Testament, may have been undertaken against Israel. Cast off all pity — Margin, “corrupted his compassions.” Other translations are unnatural and need not be mentioned. Corrupt is used in the sense of suppress, or stifle, the natural instinct of compassion which may be expected to exist between brothers. His anger did tear perpetually — Or, in his anger he did tear perpetually; that is, his anger did not exhaust itself in one outbreak (Job 16:9; Psalm 7:2). Peshitto and Vulgate favor an emendation which gives a smoother parallelism, and is accepted by most modern scholars, “and he cherished his anger perpetually” (Jeremiah 3:5; compare Nahum 1:2; Psalm 103:9). Kept his wrath forever — Time was not allowed to dissipate it; carefully it was nursed. Such conduct calls for judgment. Teman — Mentioned again in Jeremiah 49:7; Obadiah 1:9; Job 2:11, etc. According to Eusebius and Jerome, Teman was a district of Edom, but also a village about fifteen miles from the capital, Petra. The direction from Petra is not certain; in Ezekiel 25:13, however, it is mentioned as being in the opposite direction from Dedan; the latter was in the southeast; Teman, therefore, must have been in the northwest or north or northeast. Since no walls are mentioned (compare Amos 1:7, 10, 14, etc.), it is thought that the reference here is to the district. Bozrah — Named again in Genesis 36:33; Jeremiah 49:13, etc.; not the city bearing the same name mentioned in Jeremiah 48:24. It is identified with the modern el-Busaireh, a small village surrounded by extensive ruins, about thirty-five miles north of Petra and about twenty miles southeast of the Dead Sea. The capital of Edom in Amos’s day was Sela, the later Petra (see on Obadiah 1:3).

The fulfillment of this oracle also may be traced in part in the later history of Edom. With other states in western Asia, Edom paid homage to Tiglath-pileser III, after having paid tribute to an earlier king, Adad-nirari III (about 800 B.C.). Of later kings Sennacherib, Esar-haddon, and Ashur-banapal enumerate the Edomites among their vassals; evidently they were never able, though they made frequent attempts, to free themselves from the Assyrians, while the prestige of the latter endured. Edom became a part of Nebuchadnezzar’s domain (Jeremiah 27:3, 4). During the exile the Edomites crossed the Arabah and settled in southern Judah. At the time of Malachi Edom seems to have been desolate (Amos 1:3, 4); and toward the close of the fourth century B.C. Arabian tribes established themselves permanently in the territory of Edom. After the Mohammedan conquests the Edomite cities disappeared entirely. On the authenticity of this oracle see pp. 220ff.

V. 12. Teman-The metropolis of Idumea, so called from Esau’s grandson of that name. Bozrah-This was a very strong city, and one of the chief in the whole kingdom, so that in the menace against Bozrah and Teman, the strength and glory of Edom is threatened with an utter overthrow.

Verse 12. Teman-Bozrah.] Principal cities of Idumea.

Verses 11, 12. For three transgressions of Edom, &c. — The Edomites, or Idumeans, are often threatened for their enmity against the Israelites, because they took all occasions to oppress and insult over them in their distress. Because he did pursue his brother with the sword — The Edomites retained the same hatred and animosity against their brethren, the Israelites, which their father Esau had expressed against his brother Jacob. But I will send a fire upon Teman, &c. — Teman and Bozrah were two principal cities of Idumea. The destruction here denounced against them was afterward brought upon them, in some degree, by Sennacherib, but more especially by Nebuchadnezzar: see notes on Jeremiah 49:7-22, and Ezekiel 25:15.

11, 12. The sin and punishment of Edom. Edom — The Edomite territory was located south and southeast of the Dead Sea and east of the Arabah, the deep depression connecting the southern end of the Dead Sea with the Gulf of Akabah (see on Amos 6:14). During the exile the Edomites (Idumaeans) crossed this depression and settled in southern Judah. Edom was not as fertile as Palestine or Moab, though it is described as possessing, in the days of Moses, fields, vineyards, wells, and a highway (Numbers 20:17-19). With the exception of a few places the land was not suitable for agriculture, and it yielded scarcely enough for the keeping of flocks. As a result the Edomites became desert robbers, forcing a living from the caravans passing through their territory and from the neighboring more fertile regions. They were the dread of the Hebrews during the desert wanderings (Numbers 20:14ff.) and during a large part of their national history. His brother — Israel (see on Obadiah 1:10). Pursue… with the sword — An apt characterization of the relation between Israel and Edom throughout their entire history (Numbers 20; Obadiah 1:10-14; Psalm 137:7; compare Joel 3:19; Malachi 1:2-5). This hostility merited the greater condemnation because the two nations were related so intimately. It is not necessary to suppose that the prophet had in mind any specific outbreak, though analogy with the other denunciations would point in that direction. A revolt against Judah is mentioned in 2 Kings 8:20-22; but others, unrecorded in the Old Testament, may have been undertaken against Israel. Cast off all pity — Margin, “corrupted his compassions.” Other translations are unnatural and need not be mentioned. Corrupt is used in the sense of suppress, or stifle, the natural instinct of compassion which may be expected to exist between brothers. His anger did tear perpetually — Or, in his anger he did tear perpetually; that is, his anger did not exhaust itself in one outbreak (Job 16:9; Psalm 7:2). Peshitto and Vulgate favor an emendation which gives a smoother parallelism, and is accepted by most modern scholars, “and he cherished his anger perpetually” (Jeremiah 3:5; compare Nahum 1:2; Psalm 103:9). Kept his wrath forever — Time was not allowed to dissipate it; carefully it was nursed. Such conduct calls for judgment. Teman — Mentioned again in Jeremiah 49:7; Obadiah 1:9; Job 2:11, etc. According to Eusebius and Jerome, Teman was a district of Edom, but also a village about fifteen miles from the capital, Petra. The direction from Petra is not certain; in Ezekiel 25:13, however, it is mentioned as being in the opposite direction from Dedan; the latter was in the southeast; Teman, therefore, must have been in the northwest or north or northeast. Since no walls are mentioned (compare Amos 1:7, 10, 14, etc.), it is thought that the reference here is to the district. Bozrah — Named again in Genesis 36:33; Jeremiah 49:13, etc.; not the city bearing the same name mentioned in Jeremiah 48:24. It is identified with the modern el-Busaireh, a small village surrounded by extensive ruins, about thirty-five miles north of Petra and about twenty miles southeast of the Dead Sea. The capital of Edom in Amos’s day was Sela, the later Petra (see on Obadiah 1:3).

The fulfillment of this oracle also may be traced in part in the later history of Edom. With other states in western Asia, Edom paid homage to Tiglath-pileser III, after having paid tribute to an earlier king, Adad-nirari III (about 800 B.C.). Of later kings Sennacherib, Esar-haddon, and Ashur-banapal enumerate the Edomites among their vassals; evidently they were never able, though they made frequent attempts, to free themselves from the Assyrians, while the prestige of the latter endured. Edom became a part of Nebuchadnezzar’s domain (Jeremiah 27:3, 4). During the exile the Edomites crossed the Arabah and settled in southern Judah. At the time of Malachi Edom seems to have been desolate (Amos 1:3, 4); and toward the close of the fourth century B.C. Arabian tribes established themselves permanently in the territory of Edom. After the Mohammedan conquests the Edomite cities disappeared entirely. On the authenticity of this oracle see pp. 220ff.

V. 13. Enlarge their border-By destroying all that dwelt in it, and hereafter might claim a title to it.

Verse 13. The children of Ammon] The country of the Ammonites lay to the east of Jordan, in the neighbourhood of Gilead. Rabbah was its capital. Because they have ripped up] This refers to some barbarous transaction well known in the time of this prophet, but of which we have no distinct mention in the sacred historians.

Verses 13-15. For three transgressions of the children of Ammon — The Ammonites descended from Lot: see Genesis 19:38. Their country lay to the east of Jordan, in the neighbourhood of Gilead. Because they have ripped up the women with child — Hazael, king of Syria, grievously afflicted the Israelites that lay eastward of Jordan, particularly the Gileadites: see 2 Kings 10:33. The low condition to which these countries were hereby reduced, might probably encourage the Ammonites to possess themselves of Gilead, and to destroy the inhabitants in the cruel manner here stated. But I will kindle a fire in the wall of Rabbah — The chief city of the Ammonites. With shouting in the day of battle — This was intended to express the great violence with which this city should be attacked; and with a tempest in the day of the whirlwind — The destructions of war are often compared to the devastations caused by whirlwinds and tempests; and the metaphor is here introduced very naturally and sublimely. And their king shall go into captivity, he and his princes together, saith the Lord — Foretold also Jeremiah 49:3.

13-15. The sin and punishment of Ammon. Children of Ammon — Ammonites (compare “Children of Israel” — Israelites). The Ammonites, like the Moabites and Edomites, were closely related to the Hebrews. Their territory was east of the Jordan, north-northeast of Moab. The more desirable districts along the river were occupied in the earlier days by the Amorites and later by the Hebrews; as a result the Ammonites had to be content with the less desirable districts bordering on the desert. Consequently they were dependent upon their flocks, and never passed over entirely to an agricultural life. They possessed few large cities, and as a people they stood midway between the wandering Arab tribes of the desert and the settled agricultural peoples of Palestine. Gilead — Immediately west of Ammon (see on verse 3). Ripped up the women with child — The Ammonites came frequently into hostile contact with the Hebrews (Judges 11:32; 1 Samuel 11:11; 2 Samuel 12:31). After the division Ammon became tributary to Israel, but remained so only a little while. To the very end it manifested a spirit of hostility (2 Kings 24:2; Jeremiah 40:14; Nehemiah 2:10). From the definiteness of the accusation it may be inferred that the prophet has in mind a particular event, though it is impossible to identify it with certainty; some connect it with the invasion of Israel by Hazael (2 Kings 13:3; compare Amos 8:12). That the Ammonites were capable of the most inhuman practices is seen from 1 Samuel 11:2. The special form of cruelty condemned was not unknown in ancient times, even in Israel (2 Kings 15:16; Hosea 13:6; compare Nahum 3:10; Isaiah 13:16). It is frequently spoken of in Arabic literature in connection with inter-tribal border warfare. Enlarge their border — The cruelties could not be excused on the ground of self-defense; they were practiced in the pursuit of a policy of conquest. Kindle — In all the other passages “send.” Rabbah — The capital of Ammon (Ezekiel 25:5; Deuteronomy 3:11), and the only city of the Ammonites mentioned in the Old Testament. It is situated at the head of the Jabbok, about twenty-five miles northeast of the Dead Sea. By Ptolemy Philadelphus (about 250 B.C.) its name was changed to Philadelphia; its ruins now bear the name Amman. Shouting — Not the cry of despair of the defeated Ammonites, but the joyful shouts of the victorious conquerors (Joshua 6:5; Jeremiah 4:19, etc.). Tempest… whirlwind — A figurative description of the onward sweep of the hostile armies; nothing can withstand. King and princes will be carried into exile. Their king… his princes — On the latter see Hosea 3:4. The reading “his princes,” analogy with the other oracles (Amos 2:3), the absence of all reference to idolatry in the preceding denunciations, and the LXX. and Targum favor the present Hebrew reading, “their king”; on the other hand, in Jeremiah 49:3, which seems to be dependent upon this passage, Vulgate and Peshitto read in the place of “their king,” “Milcom,” which is the name of the national deity of Ammon (1 Kings 11:5, 33). If the same reading is adopted here, as is done by some, his princes becomes equivalent to his (Milcom’s) priests. In Jeremiah, where “his priests” is added, Milcom (R.V., “Malcam”) is probably correct; here the present Hebrew text is preferable.

The later history of Ammon is shrouded in obscurity; hence it is not easy to trace the fulfillment of this oracle. From the time of Tiglath-pileser III the Ammonites are mentioned in inscriptions as paying tribute to the Assyrian kings. Jeremiah prophesied against them (Jeremiah 49:1-6; compare also Ezekiel 25:1-7). In the time of Nehemiah they were still hostile to the Jews (2:19); and even at a later period they are spoken of as enemies of the Jews (1 Macc. 5:30-43). Justin Martyr speaks of them as still numerous, but Origen states that they had become merged into the Arab tribes.

V. 14. With a tempest-With irresistible force, and surprising swiftness.

Verse 14. With shouting in the day of battle] They shall be totally subdued. This was done by Nebuchadnezzar. See Jeremiah 27:3, 6.

Verses 13-15. For three transgressions of the children of Ammon — The Ammonites descended from Lot: see Genesis 19:38. Their country lay to the east of Jordan, in the neighbourhood of Gilead. Because they have ripped up the women with child — Hazael, king of Syria, grievously afflicted the Israelites that lay eastward of Jordan, particularly the Gileadites: see 2 Kings 10:33. The low condition to which these countries were hereby reduced, might probably encourage the Ammonites to possess themselves of Gilead, and to destroy the inhabitants in the cruel manner here stated. But I will kindle a fire in the wall of Rabbah — The chief city of the Ammonites. With shouting in the day of battle — This was intended to express the great violence with which this city should be attacked; and with a tempest in the day of the whirlwind — The destructions of war are often compared to the devastations caused by whirlwinds and tempests; and the metaphor is here introduced very naturally and sublimely. And their king shall go into captivity, he and his princes together, saith the Lord — Foretold also Jeremiah 49:3.

Ver. 14. I will kindle a fire in the wall of Rabbah, as described in Jeremiah 49:2. Amos prophesied in the reign of two kings of Judah, whom he acknowledges as his lawful sovereigns. During this time, (for as in Isaiah, the first chapter does not contain his first sermon) he raised his cry against the bloody cruelties of the seven nations named in this place; and he is followed by succeeding seers. The joy of those nations on the fall of Jerusalem was unbounded; but their joy was short. About four years after Jerusalem had fallen, the Assyrians made a grand campaign against Egypt, and dashed to pieces all the weak powers of Syria that refused to open their gates. See Josephus’s Wars of the Jews.

13-15. The sin and punishment of Ammon. Children of Ammon — Ammonites (compare “Children of Israel” — Israelites). The Ammonites, like the Moabites and Edomites, were closely related to the Hebrews. Their territory was east of the Jordan, north-northeast of Moab. The more desirable districts along the river were occupied in the earlier days by the Amorites and later by the Hebrews; as a result the Ammonites had to be content with the less desirable districts bordering on the desert. Consequently they were dependent upon their flocks, and never passed over entirely to an agricultural life. They possessed few large cities, and as a people they stood midway between the wandering Arab tribes of the desert and the settled agricultural peoples of Palestine. Gilead — Immediately west of Ammon (see on verse 3). Ripped up the women with child — The Ammonites came frequently into hostile contact with the Hebrews (Judges 11:32; 1 Samuel 11:11; 2 Samuel 12:31). After the division Ammon became tributary to Israel, but remained so only a little while. To the very end it manifested a spirit of hostility (2 Kings 24:2; Jeremiah 40:14; Nehemiah 2:10). From the definiteness of the accusation it may be inferred that the prophet has in mind a particular event, though it is impossible to identify it with certainty; some connect it with the invasion of Israel by Hazael (2 Kings 13:3; compare Amos 8:12). That the Ammonites were capable of the most inhuman practices is seen from 1 Samuel 11:2. The special form of cruelty condemned was not unknown in ancient times, even in Israel (2 Kings 15:16; Hosea 13:6; compare Nahum 3:10; Isaiah 13:16). It is frequently spoken of in Arabic literature in connection with inter-tribal border warfare. Enlarge their border — The cruelties could not be excused on the ground of self-defense; they were practiced in the pursuit of a policy of conquest. Kindle — In all the other passages “send.” Rabbah — The capital of Ammon (Ezekiel 25:5; Deuteronomy 3:11), and the only city of the Ammonites mentioned in the Old Testament. It is situated at the head of the Jabbok, about twenty-five miles northeast of the Dead Sea. By Ptolemy Philadelphus (about 250 B.C.) its name was changed to Philadelphia; its ruins now bear the name Amman. Shouting — Not the cry of despair of the defeated Ammonites, but the joyful shouts of the victorious conquerors (Joshua 6:5; Jeremiah 4:19, etc.). Tempest… whirlwind — A figurative description of the onward sweep of the hostile armies; nothing can withstand. King and princes will be carried into exile. Their king… his princes — On the latter see Hosea 3:4. The reading “his princes,” analogy with the other oracles (Amos 2:3), the absence of all reference to idolatry in the preceding denunciations, and the LXX. and Targum favor the present Hebrew reading, “their king”; on the other hand, in Jeremiah 49:3, which seems to be dependent upon this passage, Vulgate and Peshitto read in the place of “their king,” “Milcom,” which is the name of the national deity of Ammon (1 Kings 11:5, 33). If the same reading is adopted here, as is done by some, his princes becomes equivalent to his (Milcom’s) priests. In Jeremiah, where “his priests” is added, Milcom (R.V., “Malcam”) is probably correct; here the present Hebrew text is preferable.

The later history of Ammon is shrouded in obscurity; hence it is not easy to trace the fulfillment of this oracle. From the time of Tiglath-pileser III the Ammonites are mentioned in inscriptions as paying tribute to the Assyrian kings. Jeremiah prophesied against them (Jeremiah 49:1-6; compare also Ezekiel 25:1-7). In the time of Nehemiah they were still hostile to the Jews (2:19); and even at a later period they are spoken of as enemies of the Jews (1 Macc. 5:30-43). Justin Martyr speaks of them as still numerous, but Origen states that they had become merged into the Arab tribes.

Verse 15. Their king shall go into captivity] Probably מלכם malcham should be Milcom, who was a chief god of the Ammonites; and the following words, he and his princes, may refer to the body of his priesthood. See 1 Kings 11:33, and the notes there. All these countries were subdued by Nebuchadnezzar.

AMOS

Verses 13-15. For three transgressions of the children of Ammon — The Ammonites descended from Lot: see Genesis 19:38. Their country lay to the east of Jordan, in the neighbourhood of Gilead. Because they have ripped up the women with child — Hazael, king of Syria, grievously afflicted the Israelites that lay eastward of Jordan, particularly the Gileadites: see 2 Kings 10:33. The low condition to which these countries were hereby reduced, might probably encourage the Ammonites to possess themselves of Gilead, and to destroy the inhabitants in the cruel manner here stated. But I will kindle a fire in the wall of Rabbah — The chief city of the Ammonites. With shouting in the day of battle — This was intended to express the great violence with which this city should be attacked; and with a tempest in the day of the whirlwind — The destructions of war are often compared to the devastations caused by whirlwinds and tempests; and the metaphor is here introduced very naturally and sublimely. And their king shall go into captivity, he and his princes together, saith the Lord — Foretold also Jeremiah 49:3.

Ver. 15. Their king. Melchom signifies an idol as well as a king. The versions render the word both ways. Jeremiah 49:3, 5. This disaster was effectuated by the Chaldeans; because God promises the jews a return of the remnant.

13-15. The sin and punishment of Ammon. Children of Ammon — Ammonites (compare “Children of Israel” — Israelites). The Ammonites, like the Moabites and Edomites, were closely related to the Hebrews. Their territory was east of the Jordan, north-northeast of Moab. The more desirable districts along the river were occupied in the earlier days by the Amorites and later by the Hebrews; as a result the Ammonites had to be content with the less desirable districts bordering on the desert. Consequently they were dependent upon their flocks, and never passed over entirely to an agricultural life. They possessed few large cities, and as a people they stood midway between the wandering Arab tribes of the desert and the settled agricultural peoples of Palestine. Gilead — Immediately west of Ammon (see on verse 3). Ripped up the women with child — The Ammonites came frequently into hostile contact with the Hebrews (Judges 11:32; 1 Samuel 11:11; 2 Samuel 12:31). After the division Ammon became tributary to Israel, but remained so only a little while. To the very end it manifested a spirit of hostility (2 Kings 24:2; Jeremiah 40:14; Nehemiah 2:10). From the definiteness of the accusation it may be inferred that the prophet has in mind a particular event, though it is impossible to identify it with certainty; some connect it with the invasion of Israel by Hazael (2 Kings 13:3; compare Amos 8:12). That the Ammonites were capable of the most inhuman practices is seen from 1 Samuel 11:2. The special form of cruelty condemned was not unknown in ancient times, even in Israel (2 Kings 15:16; Hosea 13:6; compare Nahum 3:10; Isaiah 13:16). It is frequently spoken of in Arabic literature in connection with inter-tribal border warfare. Enlarge their border — The cruelties could not be excused on the ground of self-defense; they were practiced in the pursuit of a policy of conquest. Kindle — In all the other passages “send.” Rabbah — The capital of Ammon (Ezekiel 25:5; Deuteronomy 3:11), and the only city of the Ammonites mentioned in the Old Testament. It is situated at the head of the Jabbok, about twenty-five miles northeast of the Dead Sea. By Ptolemy Philadelphus (about 250 B.C.) its name was changed to Philadelphia; its ruins now bear the name Amman. Shouting — Not the cry of despair of the defeated Ammonites, but the joyful shouts of the victorious conquerors (Joshua 6:5; Jeremiah 4:19, etc.). Tempest… whirlwind — A figurative description of the onward sweep of the hostile armies; nothing can withstand. King and princes will be carried into exile. Their king… his princes — On the latter see Hosea 3:4. The reading “his princes,” analogy with the other oracles (Amos 2:3), the absence of all reference to idolatry in the preceding denunciations, and the LXX. and Targum favor the present Hebrew reading, “their king”; on the other hand, in Jeremiah 49:3, which seems to be dependent upon this passage, Vulgate and Peshitto read in the place of “their king,” “Milcom,” which is the name of the national deity of Ammon (1 Kings 11:5, 33). If the same reading is adopted here, as is done by some, his princes becomes equivalent to his (Milcom’s) priests. In Jeremiah, where “his priests” is added, Milcom (R.V., “Malcam”) is probably correct; here the present Hebrew text is preferable.

The later history of Ammon is shrouded in obscurity; hence it is not easy to trace the fulfillment of this oracle. From the time of Tiglath-pileser III the Ammonites are mentioned in inscriptions as paying tribute to the Assyrian kings. Jeremiah prophesied against them (Jeremiah 49:1-6; compare also Ezekiel 25:1-7). In the time of Nehemiah they were still hostile to the Jews (2:19); and even at a later period they are spoken of as enemies of the Jews (1 Macc. 5:30-43). Justin Martyr speaks of them as still numerous, but Origen states that they had become merged into the Arab tribes.