Titus · Chapter 1

V. 1. Paul, a servant of God, and an apostle of Jesus Christ-Titles suitable to the person of Paul, and the office he was assigning to Titus. According to the faith-The propagating of which is the proper business of an apostle.

A servant of God-According to the faith of the elect.

An apostle of Jesus Christ-According to the knowledge of the truth. We serve God according to the measure of our faith: we fulfil our public office according to the measure of our knowledge.

The truth that is after godliness-Which in every point runs parallel with and supports the vital, spiritual worship of God; and, indeed, has no other end or scope. These two verses contain the sum of Christianity, which Titus was always to have in his eye.

Of the elect of God-Of all real Christians.

Verse 1. Paul, a servant of God] In several places of his other epistles St. Paul styles himself the servant of Jesus Christ, but this is the only place where he calls himself the servant of God. Some think that he did this to vindicate himself against the Jews, who supposed he had renounced God when he admitted the Gentiles into his Church. But if thus to vindicate himself was at all necessary, why was it not done in his Epistle to the Romans, the grand object of which was to prove that the Gentiles came legally into the Church on believing in Christ, with out submitting to circumcision, or being laid under obligation to observe the rites and ceremonies of the Jewish law? This reason seems too fanciful. It is very likely that in the use of the phrase the apostle had no particular design; for, according to him, he who is the servant of Christ is the servant of God, and he who is God’s servant is also the servant of Christ. The faith of God’s elect] The Christians, who were now chosen in the place of the Jews, who, for their obstinate rejection of the Messiah, were reprobated; i.e. cast out of the Divine favour.

The acknowledging of the truth] For the propagation of that truth, or system of doctrines, which is calculated to promote godliness, or a holy and useful life.

Verse 1. Paul, a servant of the one living and true God — In some of his other epistles, Paul calls himself a servant of Jesus Christ; but this is the only one in which he calls himself a servant of God: an appellation which some think he took because the Judaizing teachers in Crete affirmed that he had apostatized from God, by receiving into his church the uncircumcised Gentiles, and thereby freeing them from obedience to the law of Moses, as a term of salvation. And an apostle of Jesus Christ — By this title he distinguishes himself from other pious and holy men, who were all servants of God; and asserts his apostleship, not to raise himself in the estimation of Titus, but to make the false teachers in Crete, and all in every age who should read this letter, sensible that every thing he ordered Titus to inculcate was of divine authority. According to the faith of God’s elect — That is, God’s true people; the propagation of which faith was the proper business of an apostle. And the acknowledging of the truth — That is, the doctrine of the gospel here termed the truth, to distinguish it from the errors of heathenism, and the shadows of the Mosaic law; and because it teaches the true, and the only true way of salvation for Jews and Gentiles; which is after godliness — Which in every point agrees with and supports the true, vital, spiritual worship and service of God; and indeed has no other end or scope. These two verses contain the sum of Christianity, which Titus was always to have in his eye.

Verse 1-3. Paul, a servant of God, and not a servant of Moses. This style is much the same as in 2 Timothy 1:1, respecting the promise of eternal life. This promise is according to the faith of God’s elect, believed by all the elect people of God; for he promised it coëval with the plan of our redemption, before the world began. The gracious Creator of heaven and earth had every possible idea before him of the formation and arrangement of every creature, and he has always elicited that which was best. In like manner the fall, and the moral character of man being before him, from before the foundation of the world, he declared his pleasure, that the Seed of the woman should bruise the serpent’s head; and even when he distinguished Abraham from the idolaters, he equally declared his pleasure, that all the families of the earth should be blessed in Christ, and that the gentiles should be fellow-heirs with the jews of the grace of life. In all those gracious plans of predestination and providence, there is no enmity in God to man; for enmity is the nature of the serpent. The glorious high throne of grace has been our sanctuary from the beginning. It is open to every one, and with all the plenary invitations of the gospel. Who then will dare to shut it? This doctrine is therefore the richest consolation of the gospel; and which salvation, the gospel, h swthriov pasin anqrwpoiv, that which saveth all men, Paul was sent to preach: Titus 2:11. With this consolation to the gentiles, despised of the jews, Paul mostly opens all his epistles.

1. Paul—See note on 1 Timothy 1:1. Servant of God… apostle of… Christ—An antithesis of the general against the special. He is God’s servant, as a generality, shared with all good men; but apostle of Christ is his rare specialty, shared with a choice very few. The and of the English translation, which obscures the antithesis, should be but. The whole passage, after this divine epithet apostle, to the end of verse 3, is an expansion of the great import of that epithet; an assertion of the divinity of Paul’s office, as based upon the divinity of the gospel system, with which it accords, and of which it is an integral part. It takes the whole three verses to fully express Paul’s style and prerogative as apostle, preparatory to his to Titus, mine own son. Even then it is but a summary of his self-assertion in Part First of 1 Timothy, as shown in our Plan, vol. iv, p. 411. Hence this is an official letter—a certificate and a diploma, which apostolically authenticates Titus to the Churches of Crete, while it warns him to stand firmly and exclusively upon the high apostolic platform as against surrounding errorists. According to—See notes on this phrase Ephesians 1:9 and Romans 16:25-27. In that passage of Ephesians the Greek kata, according to, occurs five times, as here four times—an occult proof that Paul was author of both; so occult, indeed, as to have escaped the critical commentators. We are, also, warned thereby from giving different meanings to the words in the different parts of this passage. The apostleship, as an institute, accords with the whole Gospel as a doctrine and a plan. Both, fitting to each other, form the divine system. This apostleship accords with the faith of God’s elect, as being embraced therein in the belief of all the faithful. Hence the substitution by Alford (following Huther) of for, instead of according to, is not only unjustified by the Greek, but contrary to Paul’s special use of the word kata, and unrequired by the current of this passage. The faith of God’s elect— Namely, that faith by which they become and stay the chosen of God— harmonizes with and sustains the apotolate; and if any professed faith rejects it, as does the prevalent Jewish fabulism; it is not the faith of God’s elect. And hence the apostolate of St. Paul accords with the genuine acknowledging of the truth which is after (kata, according to) godliness. The meaning is not (as Wiesinger, Huther, Alford, and others) that the apostolate is “for,” that is, conducive to, the acknowledging, but that the apostolate, and a right acknowledging, correspond and are firmly bound together. He who questions the apostolate does not acknowledge the truth. According to—Another kata, which all are obliged to render rightly. The apostleship accords with just that truth which accords with godliness, or piety. Godliness is a rectitude of heart and faith in communion with God, and under control of the Divine. Yet the divine name does not enter into the Greek word, which word is compounded of eu, (right,) and sebew, (worship,) and signifies true devotion, or piety. The words of Chrysostom, approvingly quoted by Huther, do not hit the mark: “Other truth there is which is not according to godliness, as truth of agriculture or trade.” St. Paul’s phrase is not opposed to any secular truths, but only to the pretended truths, though real falsehoods, of Gnosticism and fallen Judaism, with which both Timothy and Titus were to contend in their respective charges. For throughout this entire paragraph of St. Paul’s self-assertion, the opposition of the Ephesian and Cretan gainsayers is silently presupposed. His office is in accordance with God’s truth; their teaching is in accordance with a conscience defiled. Verse 15. The truth which is after godliness—It must be emphatically noticed that this accordance and identification of truth with rectitude is St. Paul’s leading test of his true Christianity. To stay Christian, as he holds Christianity, is to stay (verse 8) sober, just, holy, temperate; to leave Christianity and relapse into heathenism, or run into Gnosticism, is to become like the Cretans, (verse 12,) or like the reprobate, (verse 16.) It is, therefore, not of mere theoretic or doctrinal truth, but it is of reformatory, saving, divine truth—truth which is after godliness—that he is, and Titus in his place must be, the unflinching champion at Crete. He purposes to raise Crete into a true Christian civilization through his Gospel and organized Church.

V. 2. In hope of eternal life-The grand motive and encouragement of every apostle and every servant of God.

Which God promised before the world began-To Christ, our Head.

Verse 2. In hope of eternal life] In expectation of a state of being and well being which should last through eternity, when time should be no more. This includes, not only the salvation of the soul and its eternal beatification, but also the resurrection of the body. This was a point but ill understood, and not very clearly revealed, under the Mosaic law; but it was fully revealed under the Gospel, and the doctrine illustrated by the resurrection and ascension of Christ.

Which God, that cannot lie, promised] We have often seen that the phrase, the foundation of the world, means the Jewish economy, and, before the foundation of the world, the times antecedent to the giving of the law. This is evidently the meaning here. See 2 Timothy 1:9-11. Supposing the word aiwniwn in this verse to signify eternal, says Dr. Macknight, the literal translation of pRomans cronwn aiwniwn would be, before eternal times; but that being a contradiction in terms, our translators, contrary to the propriety of the Greek language, have rendered it before the world began, as Mr. Locke observes on Romans 16:25. The true literal translation is before the secular times, referring us to the Jewish jubilees, by which times were computed among the Hebrews, as among the Gentiles they were computed by generations of men. Hence, Colossians 1:26, The mystery which was kept hid apo twn aiwnwn kai apo twn genewn, from the ages and from the generations, signifies the mystery which was kept hid from the Jews and from the Gentiles.

Verses 2-4. In hope — Which doctrine lays a foundation for, and shows us how we may attain a well-grounded and lively hope; of eternal life — The grand motive and encouragement of every apostle and every servant of God. Which God, that cannot lie — Nor deceive any of his creatures, hath not only, as in the former dispensation, intimated to us, but expressly promised — To all obedient believers; before the world began — Or, before the times of the ages, as Macknight renders pro cronwn aiwniwn, observing, “the promise here referred to is that which God made to Adam and Eve, and their posterity, at the fall, when in passing sentence on the serpent, he said of the seed of the woman, It shall bruise thy head. The same promise was renewed in the covenant with Abraham: In thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed.” That this included a promise of eternal life to all believers has frequently been shown. It is true, “supposing the word aiwniov, in this clause, to signify eternal, the literal translation of the passage would be, before eternal times. But that being a contradiction in terms, our translators, contrary to the propriety of the Greek language, have rendered it, before the world began. As Locke observes on Romans 16:25, the true, literal translation is, before the secular times, referring us to the Jewish jubilees, by which times were computed among the Hebrews, as among the Gentiles they were computed by generations of men.” But hath in due times — Or, in his own times, as the phrase kairoiv idioiv properly signifies. God’s own times are fittest for his own work. What creature dares ask, Why no sooner? Manifested his word — His gospel, containing that promise, and the whole truth which is after godliness; through preaching — The public declaration thereof; which is committed unto me — Or, wherewith I am intrusted. According to the commandment — Or sovereign pleasure; of God our Saviour — And who dares exercise this office on any inferior authority? By affirming that Christ intrusted him with the preaching of the gospel according to the commandment of God, or as it is expressed 1 Corinthians 1:1; 2 Corinthians 1:1, by the will of God, the apostle carried his own authority to the highest pitch. To Titus, mine own son — Begotten of God by my preaching, and a true follower of me, and my assistant in the Lord’s work. See on Philippians 2:22. After the common faith — Common to me and all my spiritual children. Grace, mercy, and peace, &c. — See on 1 Timothy 1:2.

Verse 1-3. Paul, a servant of God, and not a servant of Moses. This style is much the same as in 2 Timothy 1:1, respecting the promise of eternal life. This promise is according to the faith of God’s elect, believed by all the elect people of God; for he promised it coëval with the plan of our redemption, before the world began. The gracious Creator of heaven and earth had every possible idea before him of the formation and arrangement of every creature, and he has always elicited that which was best. In like manner the fall, and the moral character of man being before him, from before the foundation of the world, he declared his pleasure, that the Seed of the woman should bruise the serpent’s head; and even when he distinguished Abraham from the idolaters, he equally declared his pleasure, that all the families of the earth should be blessed in Christ, and that the gentiles should be fellow-heirs with the jews of the grace of life. In all those gracious plans of predestination and providence, there is no enmity in God to man; for enmity is the nature of the serpent. The glorious high throne of grace has been our sanctuary from the beginning. It is open to every one, and with all the plenary invitations of the gospel. Who then will dare to shut it? This doctrine is therefore the richest consolation of the gospel; and which salvation, the gospel, h swthriov pasin anqrwpoiv, that which saveth all men, Paul was sent to preach: Titus 2:11. With this consolation to the gentiles, despised of the jews, Paul mostly opens all his epistles.

2. In hope—Literally, upon hope. But what is it that rests upon this hope? Afford, translating it in hope, misses by saying it is the whole clause after apostle, from not seeing that the whole passage to verse 4 expands St. Paul’s apostle. Paul is apostle, according to godliness; and based upon hope, etc., to end of verse 3. The apostolate is based, not, as is the mission of the gainsayers, (verse 9,) upon Jewish fables, (verse 14,) but upon a hope of eternal life, eternally promised by a truthful God. This is his and Titus’s platform over all rival systems in Crete. Eternal life—AEonic life; that life which belongs to the endless and glorious aeons, ages, or time-worlds, of the future. See notes on Matthew 25:46; Galatians 1:4, 5; Ephesians 1:10. In this transcendent object of hope St. Paul’s Gospel stood alone. Cannot lie—Literal Greek, unlying. Hence the assured fulfilment of the apostolic hope. Before the world began—Pro cronwn aiwniwn, before aeonic times; before the time-worlds began to roll on their events; from the anterior eternity. See notes on Galatians 1:4, 5; Ephesians 1:4; 2:2; and 2 Timothy 1:9. As Alford rightly says, against Huther, the same phrase in 2 Timothy 1:9 forbids interpreting it here as merely equivalent to ap’ aiwnov, “from of old.” Luke 1:70. The promise, from eternity, is explained in our note to Ephesians 1:4, 5, 9. From his very nature God eternally promises eternal life to all who come into accord and unison with himself. The temporal promises of eternal things in the Gospel are the external expressions of the true eternal promise. And so the apostle declares that the aeonic life of the gospel hope is not a thing of to-day, but lies in ideal in the anterior eternal ages. And hereby is, perhaps, made clear the error of Huther, who tells us that if the phrase means from eternity, then promised must mean decreed. Just as if a mental promise, and that a conditional one, too, could not be as truly eternal as a mental decree! And he quotes the questionable authority of Calvin, who says: “As the phrase treats of a promise, it does not embrace eternal ages, so as to bring us to before the world began, but teaches us only that many temporal ages had passed since the promise was made.” But the true meaning is, that there are the “promise and potency” of holy and blessed union with God himself for all who thereto consent in his own appointed way; an eternal election of all who voluntarily come into that election.

V. 3. And he hath in his own times-At sundry times; and his own times are fittest for his own work. What creature dares ask, "Why no sooner?" Manifested his word-Containing that promise, and the whole "truth which is after godliness."

Through the preaching wherewith I am intrusted according to the commandment of God our Saviour-And who dares exercise this office on any less authority?

Verse 3. But hath in due times] kairoiv idioiv. In its own times. See 1 Timothy 2:6; Galatians 4:4; Ephesians 1:10; 2:7. God caused the Gospel to be published in that time in which it could be published with the greatest effect. It is impossible that God should prematurely hasten, or causelessly delay, the accomplishment of any of his works. Jesus was manifested precisely at the time in which that manifestation could best promote the glory of God and the salvation of man.

Manifested his word] ton logon autou. His doctrine-the doctrine of eternal life, by the incarnation, passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.

Which is committed unto me] That is, to preach it among the Gentiles. According to the commandment of God our Saviour] This evidently refers to the commission which he had received from Christ. See Acts 9:15: “He is a chosen vessel unto me, to bear my name before the Gentiles.” For, “I have appeared unto thee for this purpose, to make thee a minister and a witness both of these things which thou hast seen, and of those things in the which I will appear unto thee; delivering thee from the people and from the Gentiles, unto whom now I send thee; to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light,” &c,; Acts 26:16, &c. This is the commandment; and according to it he became the apostle of the Gentiles.

God our Saviour.-As the commission was given by Jesus Christ alone, the person whom he terms here God our Saviour must be Jesus Christ only; and this is another proof that St. Paul believed Jesus Christ to be GOD. This eternal life God had promised in a comparatively obscure way before the foundation of the world, the Jewish dispensation; but now under the Gospel, he had made it manifest-produced it with all its brightness, illustrations, and proofs.

Verses 2-4. In hope — Which doctrine lays a foundation for, and shows us how we may attain a well-grounded and lively hope; of eternal life — The grand motive and encouragement of every apostle and every servant of God. Which God, that cannot lie — Nor deceive any of his creatures, hath not only, as in the former dispensation, intimated to us, but expressly promised — To all obedient believers; before the world began — Or, before the times of the ages, as Macknight renders pro cronwn aiwniwn, observing, “the promise here referred to is that which God made to Adam and Eve, and their posterity, at the fall, when in passing sentence on the serpent, he said of the seed of the woman, It shall bruise thy head. The same promise was renewed in the covenant with Abraham: In thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed.” That this included a promise of eternal life to all believers has frequently been shown. It is true, “supposing the word aiwniov, in this clause, to signify eternal, the literal translation of the passage would be, before eternal times. But that being a contradiction in terms, our translators, contrary to the propriety of the Greek language, have rendered it, before the world began. As Locke observes on Romans 16:25, the true, literal translation is, before the secular times, referring us to the Jewish jubilees, by which times were computed among the Hebrews, as among the Gentiles they were computed by generations of men.” But hath in due times — Or, in his own times, as the phrase kairoiv idioiv properly signifies. God’s own times are fittest for his own work. What creature dares ask, Why no sooner? Manifested his word — His gospel, containing that promise, and the whole truth which is after godliness; through preaching — The public declaration thereof; which is committed unto me — Or, wherewith I am intrusted. According to the commandment — Or sovereign pleasure; of God our Saviour — And who dares exercise this office on any inferior authority? By affirming that Christ intrusted him with the preaching of the gospel according to the commandment of God, or as it is expressed 1 Corinthians 1:1; 2 Corinthians 1:1, by the will of God, the apostle carried his own authority to the highest pitch. To Titus, mine own son — Begotten of God by my preaching, and a true follower of me, and my assistant in the Lord’s work. See on Philippians 2:22. After the common faith — Common to me and all my spiritual children. Grace, mercy, and peace, &c. — See on 1 Timothy 1:2.

Verse 1-3. Paul, a servant of God, and not a servant of Moses. This style is much the same as in 2 Timothy 1:1, respecting the promise of eternal life. This promise is according to the faith of God’s elect, believed by all the elect people of God; for he promised it coëval with the plan of our redemption, before the world began. The gracious Creator of heaven and earth had every possible idea before him of the formation and arrangement of every creature, and he has always elicited that which was best. In like manner the fall, and the moral character of man being before him, from before the foundation of the world, he declared his pleasure, that the Seed of the woman should bruise the serpent’s head; and even when he distinguished Abraham from the idolaters, he equally declared his pleasure, that all the families of the earth should be blessed in Christ, and that the gentiles should be fellow-heirs with the jews of the grace of life. In all those gracious plans of predestination and providence, there is no enmity in God to man; for enmity is the nature of the serpent. The glorious high throne of grace has been our sanctuary from the beginning. It is open to every one, and with all the plenary invitations of the gospel. Who then will dare to shut it? This doctrine is therefore the richest consolation of the gospel; and which salvation, the gospel, h swthriov pasin anqrwpoiv, that which saveth all men, Paul was sent to preach: Titus 2:11. With this consolation to the gentiles, despised of the jews, Paul mostly opens all his epistles.

3. But—Contrastive between the ideal and the manifested promise. In due times—In its own times; the times divinely held to be suitable for such manifestation. His word—We might have expected it as referring to promise, as manifested; but St. Paul uses the term his word to identify the promise with the gospel word. Preaching—Literally, proclamation. Committed unto me—Note 1 Timothy 1:12-17. According to—The third kata in the paragraph. Paul’s apostleship accords with “elect faith;” which accords with “godliness;” the preaching of which accords with the divine order. And the passage ends, as it began, at Paul’s personality, showing that the whole is the import of the word apostle, so that at this point he makes transition to Titus.

V. 4. My own son-Begot in the same image of God, and repaying a paternal with a filial affection.

The common faith-Common to me and all my spiritual children.

Verse 4. To Titus, mine own son] Him whom I have been the instrument of converting to the Christian faith; and in whom, in this respect, I have the same right as any man can have in his own begotten son. See the preface; and see Clarke on “1 Timothy 1:2”.

Verses 2-4. In hope — Which doctrine lays a foundation for, and shows us how we may attain a well-grounded and lively hope; of eternal life — The grand motive and encouragement of every apostle and every servant of God. Which God, that cannot lie — Nor deceive any of his creatures, hath not only, as in the former dispensation, intimated to us, but expressly promised — To all obedient believers; before the world began — Or, before the times of the ages, as Macknight renders pro cronwn aiwniwn, observing, “the promise here referred to is that which God made to Adam and Eve, and their posterity, at the fall, when in passing sentence on the serpent, he said of the seed of the woman, It shall bruise thy head. The same promise was renewed in the covenant with Abraham: In thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed.” That this included a promise of eternal life to all believers has frequently been shown. It is true, “supposing the word aiwniov, in this clause, to signify eternal, the literal translation of the passage would be, before eternal times. But that being a contradiction in terms, our translators, contrary to the propriety of the Greek language, have rendered it, before the world began. As Locke observes on Romans 16:25, the true, literal translation is, before the secular times, referring us to the Jewish jubilees, by which times were computed among the Hebrews, as among the Gentiles they were computed by generations of men.” But hath in due times — Or, in his own times, as the phrase kairoiv idioiv properly signifies. God’s own times are fittest for his own work. What creature dares ask, Why no sooner? Manifested his word — His gospel, containing that promise, and the whole truth which is after godliness; through preaching — The public declaration thereof; which is committed unto me — Or, wherewith I am intrusted. According to the commandment — Or sovereign pleasure; of God our Saviour — And who dares exercise this office on any inferior authority? By affirming that Christ intrusted him with the preaching of the gospel according to the commandment of God, or as it is expressed 1 Corinthians 1:1; 2 Corinthians 1:1, by the will of God, the apostle carried his own authority to the highest pitch. To Titus, mine own son — Begotten of God by my preaching, and a true follower of me, and my assistant in the Lord’s work. See on Philippians 2:22. After the common faith — Common to me and all my spiritual children. Grace, mercy, and peace, &c. — See on 1 Timothy 1:2.

Ver. 4. To Titus mine own son. St. Paul had appointed him to superintend the island of Crete, noted as a very wicked and lascivious country. Paul loved him most tenderly as his own bowels. According to Erasmus, he wrote this letter to him from a city of Epirus, called Nicopolè, lying on the seacoast, and situate in a cliff called Leucate, or the cliff of Actium. And as there is no mention of persecution, it would seem that the church enjoyed repose. Hence, the letter is restricted to doctrine and discipline.

4. Own son—Literal Greek, genuine or legitimate son; son, that is, by regeneration, as Paul does not hesitate to call even the humble Onesimus son, as being under his ministry converted. Genuine son, as being in his own true spiritual likeness; begotten to the Pauline gospel, and competent to represent and establish it in Crete. Extended as is his own style and title, that assigned to Titus is brief and simple. Note, 1 Timothy 1:2. Yet, as son, Titus seems to be made heir to a very full amount of apostolic authority, as appears in the very strong terms conveying functions in this epistle and in this chapter. Even if it could be supposed that Timothy was appointed pastor of but a single Church in Ephesus, Titus was certainly a super-presbyterial superintendent of several Churches, with their pastors, in Crete. He was, however, more an itinerant bishop than a diocesan. Common faith—Common to all the elect, verse 1. The sonship of Titus was not after the flesh, but after the faith. Grace—Note 1 Timothy 1:2.

Portraiture of the suitable Eldership in Crete, 5-9.

A miniature edition of the fuller picture in 1 Timothy 3:1-7, the characterization of the deacons being omitted. The reason assigned by Wiesinger for the omission of the deacons is, that deacons are less necessary to the completeness of a Church. And no doubt the eldership is the main trunk of the ministry, practically necessary to a Church, and the deaconship and episcopate are less essential branches; important, but not necessary to a valid Church.

V. 5. The things which are wanting-Which I had not time to settle myself.

Ordain elders-Appoint the most faithful, zealous men to watch over the rest. Their character follows, Titus 1:6-9. These were the elders, or bishops, that Paul approved of;-men that had living faith, a pure conscience, a blameless life.

Verse 5. For this cause left I thee in Crete] That St. Paul had been in Crete, though nowhere else intimated, is clear from this passage. That he could not have made such an important visit, and evangelized an island of the first consequence, without its being mentioned by his historian, Luke, had it happened during the period embraced in the Acts of the Apostles, must be evident. That the journey, therefore, must have been performed after the time in which St. Luke ends his history, that is, after St. Paul’s first imprisonment at Rome, seems almost certain.

Set in order the things that are wanting] It appears from this that the apostle did not spend much time in Crete, and that he was obliged to leave it before he had got the Church properly organized. The supplying of this defect, he tells Titus, he had confided to him as one whose spiritual views coincided entirely with his own.

Ordain elders in every city] That thou mightest appoint, katasthshv, elders-persons well instructed in Divine things, who should be able to instruct others, and observe and enforce the discipline of the Church. It appears that those who are called elders in this place are the same as those termed bishops in Titus 1:7. We have many proofs that bishops and elders were of the same order in the apostolic Church, though afterwards they became distinct. Lord Peter King, in his view of the primitive Church, has written well on this subject.

In every city.-kata polin. This seems to intimate that the apostle had gone over the whole of the hecatompolis or hundred cities for which this island was celebrated. Indeed it is not likely that he would leave one in which he had not preached Christ crucified.

Verse 5. For this cause left I thee in Crete — Crete is one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, being in length, from east to west, about 250 miles, in breadth about 50, and in circuit about 600; and anciently it must have been very populous, being famous for its 100 cities. It is now called Candia, from its chief city, which bears that name. In the year 1204 the Venetians took Canea, the second greatest city in Crete, and with it the whole island. That city they held till the year 1645, when the Turks conquered it, and almost entirely expelled the Venetians from Crete; and they have kept possession of it ever since. After the gospel was planted in Crete by the apostle and his assistant Titus, it took such deep root, and spread itself so widely through the island, that it has subsisted there ever since; and is at present the religion of the natives, who are in general of the Greek Church. These, on payment of a stated tribute to the Turks, are allowed the exercise of their religion without molestation. That thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting — That is, that thou shouldest perfect what was left unfinished at my departure, or mightest settle the affairs which I had not time to settle myself; and ordain elders — Pastors or teachers, the same with bishops, verse 7; in every city — Where there are churches; as I had appointed — Or commanded thee. The apostle proceeds, in the four next verses, to show what ought to be the character and qualifications of the persons fit to be ordained.

Ver. 5. For this cause left I thee in Crete, now Candia, so called because the ancient inhabitants were Caretes. It is about two hundred miles in length, and fifty in breadth. The island is mountainous, and therefore abounds with springs and rivers. It could once boast of a hundred cities, but now, says Boiste, thirty thousand is the number of its inhabitants, chiefly Turks, Greeks, and Jews. One of its mountains was once laid open by an earthquake. Christianity in Crete was coëval, without much doubt, with the dispersion of the church on the martyrdom of Stephen. Titus was left here to establish discipline, and to ordain elders in all the hundred cities, for christian churches were so many synagogues reformed to Christ, as stated on Matthew 4:23. Leviticus 23:3. The catholic writers say, that Titus was appointed archbishop of Crete for life. But that idea does not accord with his call, like that of Paul, to be an apostolic man to the gentile world.

5. Left I thee in Crete—As he left Timothy in Ephesus on departing for Macedonia. 1 Timothy 1:3. Set in order—The Greek word implies a supplementary ordering in an incomplete work. Wanting—Left undone by St. Paul for want of time. Ordain—Constitute or appoint. Same word is used Acts 6:3, where see note, and Luke 12:14. The word itself decides nothing as to the mode; but undoubtedly all St. Paul’s ordinations were performed with the solemn laying on of hands. Adverse criticism has objected that St. Paul’s delineation of the eldership is not very complete or symmetrical, and that it says no more than Titus ought to have known without it. The portraiture consists, we may admit, of rough strokes rather than flowing lines. But it doubtless selects the points which most contrasted with the evil traits of the errorists; and furnished not so much information as reminder to Titus and to the elders. In every city—This implies that there were many cities in Crete in which one or more Churches existed. Christianity had been known for some time in the island, and St. Paul’s work had been revival and extension rather than first introduction. It was also Titus’s work to complete the reorganization. His alone was the work of ordaining. If we ask why no old Cretan presbyter or presbyters were authorized to ordain? a reason probably was, that, if there were such elders, not one was fully qualified to maintain Paul’s true apostolic type of Christian faith and order. A second reason may have been that an ordination, and the grade and office it authenticates, are more impressive and authoritative when coming from a higher organic authority. I had appointed thee—Titus was thus an apostle’s vicar, by an apostle appointed to do apostolic work.

V. 6. The husband of one wife-Surely the Holy Ghost, by repeating this so often, designed to leave the Romanists without excuse.

Verse 6. If any be blameless] See Clarke’s notes on “1 Timothy 3:2”, &c.

Having faithful children] Whose family is converted to God. It would have been absurd to employ a man to govern the Church whose children were not in subjection to himself; for it is an apostolic maxim, that he who cannot rule his own house, cannot rule the Church of God; 1 Timothy 3:5.

Verses 6-9. If any be blameless — As to his conduct, shunning the appearance of evil, and walking in all the ordinances and commandments of God; the husband of one wife — See on 1 Timothy 3:2; having faithful, or believing children — As tekna pista may be properly rendered; that is, not infidels, but such as embrace the Christian faith; not accused of riot — Aswtiastu of luxury, or intemperance; or unruly — Anupotakta, refractory or disobedient. The apostle required that the children of the person who was to be ordained an elder should be believers in Christ, and of a sober, exemplary behaviour, because the infidelity and vices of children never fail to reflect some blame on their parents. And the children of ministers ought certainly, from that consideration, as well as in order to the salvation of their own souls, carefully to avoid every irregularity, and even impropriety of conduct. For a bishop — Or elder, as he is called, verse 5; must be blameless — In order to his being useful; as the steward of God — One intrusted by God with the care of immortal souls, and with the dispensation of the mysteries of the gospel; not self-willed — Auqadh, literally, pleasing himself; but all men for their good to edification; not soon angry — Or easily provoked: as orgilon means; not given to wine, &c. — See on 1 Timothy 3:2-7; sober — Or prudent: as swfrona may be properly rendered. It implies, especially, the proper government of our angry passions; so that on all occasions we behave with prudence; temperate — In the use of every sensual pleasure; one who has so the command of himself that he keeps all his appetites under due restraint. Holding fast the faithful word — That is, the word of the truth of the gospel. There is a great beauty, says Macknight, in the word antecomenon, as here used. It signifies the holding fast the true doctrine, in opposition to those who would wrest it from us; as he hath been taught — Kata thn didachn, according to the teaching, namely, of the apostles; that by sound, or salutary doctrine, he may be able both to exhort — Believers to zeal and diligence in the performance of their duty; and to convince gainsayers — Those that oppose the truth, of their errors and sins.

Ver. 6. The husband of one wife. 1 Timothy 3:2. Theophylact’s comment here is, that matrimony is joined with episcopasy, and is therefore a hallowed institution; it can ascend the holy throne and seat of the chief pastor. The other characters of those elders, and they were not all ministers of the word, will be found in 1 Timothy 3.

6. If—Perhaps it was a contingency whether many such men could be found in Crete, but the words do not necessarily so imply. Blameless— Possessed of such known innocence of character as makes imputation of wrong at the start improbable. One wife—Note on 1 Timothy 3:2; 4:9. Children—Notes 1 Timothy 3:4, 5. Accused—Refers to children. There is a common but fallacious notion prevalent that ministers’ children, instead of being after Paul’s model, are worse than other people’s children. A modern Greek proverb is, that “the parson’s son is the devil’s grandson.” Impartial statistics, however, show that in this country, at any rate, the reverse is the truth. The fallacy arises from the fact that people demand a ministerial rectitude of ministers’ children. When a minister’s son, therefore, commits a gross fault, it is usually told with the awful addendum, “and a minister’s son, too!” No one thinks of exclaiming, “and a lawyer’s,” or, “a mechanic’s, son, too!” The transgressing minister’s son will be remembered for a quarter of a century as standing proof that ministers’ sons are the worst of young men.

V. 7. As the steward of God-To whom he intrusts immortal souls. Not selfwilled-Literally, pleasing himself; but all men "for their good to edification."

Not passionate-But mild, yielding, tender.

Verse 7. Not self-willed] mh auqadh. Not one who is determined to have his own way in every thing; setting up his own judgment to that of all others; expecting all to pay homage to his understanding. Such a governor in the Church of God can do little good, and may do much mischief. Not soon angry] mh opgilon. Not a choleric man; one who is irritable; who is apt to be inflamed on every opposition; one who has not proper command over his own temper.

Verses 6-9. If any be blameless — As to his conduct, shunning the appearance of evil, and walking in all the ordinances and commandments of God; the husband of one wife — See on 1 Timothy 3:2; having faithful, or believing children — As tekna pista may be properly rendered; that is, not infidels, but such as embrace the Christian faith; not accused of riot — Aswtiastu of luxury, or intemperance; or unruly — Anupotakta, refractory or disobedient. The apostle required that the children of the person who was to be ordained an elder should be believers in Christ, and of a sober, exemplary behaviour, because the infidelity and vices of children never fail to reflect some blame on their parents. And the children of ministers ought certainly, from that consideration, as well as in order to the salvation of their own souls, carefully to avoid every irregularity, and even impropriety of conduct. For a bishop — Or elder, as he is called, verse 5; must be blameless — In order to his being useful; as the steward of God — One intrusted by God with the care of immortal souls, and with the dispensation of the mysteries of the gospel; not self-willed — Auqadh, literally, pleasing himself; but all men for their good to edification; not soon angry — Or easily provoked: as orgilon means; not given to wine, &c. — See on 1 Timothy 3:2-7; sober — Or prudent: as swfrona may be properly rendered. It implies, especially, the proper government of our angry passions; so that on all occasions we behave with prudence; temperate — In the use of every sensual pleasure; one who has so the command of himself that he keeps all his appetites under due restraint. Holding fast the faithful word — That is, the word of the truth of the gospel. There is a great beauty, says Macknight, in the word antecomenon, as here used. It signifies the holding fast the true doctrine, in opposition to those who would wrest it from us; as he hath been taught — Kata thn didachn, according to the teaching, namely, of the apostles; that by sound, or salutary doctrine, he may be able both to exhort — Believers to zeal and diligence in the performance of their duty; and to convince gainsayers — Those that oppose the truth, of their errors and sins.

7. Steward of God—Not a mere employe of the charge he serves, but a called appointee of God, certified through the ordaining hand of the Church. Not—The blamelessness of the elder is now described with five negatives, showing what he must not be. Compare 1 Timothy 3:3-6.

Verse 8. A lover of hospitality] filoxenon. A lover of strangers. See Clarke’s note on “1 Timothy 3:2”. Instead of filoxenon, one MS. has filoptwxon, a lover of the poor. That minister who neglects the poor, but is frequent in his visits to the rich, knows little of his Master’s work, and has little of his Master’s spirit.

A lover of good men] filagaqon. A lover of goodness or of good things in general.

Sober] Prudent in all his conduct. Just in all his dealings. Holy in his heart. Temperate-self-denying and abstemious, in his food and raiment; not too nice on points of honour, nor magisterially rigid in the exercise of his ecclesiastical functions. Qualifications rarely found in spiritual governors.

Verses 6-9. If any be blameless — As to his conduct, shunning the appearance of evil, and walking in all the ordinances and commandments of God; the husband of one wife — See on 1 Timothy 3:2; having faithful, or believing children — As tekna pista may be properly rendered; that is, not infidels, but such as embrace the Christian faith; not accused of riot — Aswtiastu of luxury, or intemperance; or unruly — Anupotakta, refractory or disobedient. The apostle required that the children of the person who was to be ordained an elder should be believers in Christ, and of a sober, exemplary behaviour, because the infidelity and vices of children never fail to reflect some blame on their parents. And the children of ministers ought certainly, from that consideration, as well as in order to the salvation of their own souls, carefully to avoid every irregularity, and even impropriety of conduct. For a bishop — Or elder, as he is called, verse 5; must be blameless — In order to his being useful; as the steward of God — One intrusted by God with the care of immortal souls, and with the dispensation of the mysteries of the gospel; not self-willed — Auqadh, literally, pleasing himself; but all men for their good to edification; not soon angry — Or easily provoked: as orgilon means; not given to wine, &c. — See on 1 Timothy 3:2-7; sober — Or prudent: as swfrona may be properly rendered. It implies, especially, the proper government of our angry passions; so that on all occasions we behave with prudence; temperate — In the use of every sensual pleasure; one who has so the command of himself that he keeps all his appetites under due restraint. Holding fast the faithful word — That is, the word of the truth of the gospel. There is a great beauty, says Macknight, in the word antecomenon, as here used. It signifies the holding fast the true doctrine, in opposition to those who would wrest it from us; as he hath been taught — Kata thn didachn, according to the teaching, namely, of the apostles; that by sound, or salutary doctrine, he may be able both to exhort — Believers to zeal and diligence in the performance of their duty; and to convince gainsayers — Those that oppose the truth, of their errors and sins.

8. But—Contrastively, the elder must possess the six qualities expressed in the text.

V. 9. As he hath been taught-Perhaps it might be more literally rendered, according to the teaching, or doctrine, of the apostles; alluding to Acts 2:42.

Verse 9. Holding fast the faithful word] Conscientiously retaining, and zealously maintaining, the true Christian doctrine, kata thn didachn, according to the instructions, or according to the institutions, form of sound doctrine, or confession of faith, which I have delivered to thee. That he may be able by sound doctrine] If the doctrine be not sound, vain is the profession of it, and vain its influence. It is good to be zealously affected in a good thing; but zeal for what is not of God will do no good to the souls of men, how sincere soever that zeal may be. To exhort] Them to hold the faith, that they may persevere. And to convince] Refute the objections, confound the sophistry, and convert the gainsayers; and thus defend the truth.

Verses 6-9. If any be blameless — As to his conduct, shunning the appearance of evil, and walking in all the ordinances and commandments of God; the husband of one wife — See on 1 Timothy 3:2; having faithful, or believing children — As tekna pista may be properly rendered; that is, not infidels, but such as embrace the Christian faith; not accused of riot — Aswtiastu of luxury, or intemperance; or unruly — Anupotakta, refractory or disobedient. The apostle required that the children of the person who was to be ordained an elder should be believers in Christ, and of a sober, exemplary behaviour, because the infidelity and vices of children never fail to reflect some blame on their parents. And the children of ministers ought certainly, from that consideration, as well as in order to the salvation of their own souls, carefully to avoid every irregularity, and even impropriety of conduct. For a bishop — Or elder, as he is called, verse 5; must be blameless — In order to his being useful; as the steward of God — One intrusted by God with the care of immortal souls, and with the dispensation of the mysteries of the gospel; not self-willed — Auqadh, literally, pleasing himself; but all men for their good to edification; not soon angry — Or easily provoked: as orgilon means; not given to wine, &c. — See on 1 Timothy 3:2-7; sober — Or prudent: as swfrona may be properly rendered. It implies, especially, the proper government of our angry passions; so that on all occasions we behave with prudence; temperate — In the use of every sensual pleasure; one who has so the command of himself that he keeps all his appetites under due restraint. Holding fast the faithful word — That is, the word of the truth of the gospel. There is a great beauty, says Macknight, in the word antecomenon, as here used. It signifies the holding fast the true doctrine, in opposition to those who would wrest it from us; as he hath been taught — Kata thn didachn, according to the teaching, namely, of the apostles; that by sound, or salutary doctrine, he may be able both to exhort — Believers to zeal and diligence in the performance of their duty; and to convince gainsayers — Those that oppose the truth, of their errors and sins.

Ver. 9-14. To convince the gainsayers. Opening and alleging out of the scriptures to the jews, that Jesus is the Christ; calling the gentiles to repentance for their violations of the law of nature, and revolts against the power of conscience. Demonstrating also the truth of christianity by arguments, and by such signs as God was pleased to give, and by promises of the Holy Spirit to every believer.

A bishop must also be able to look the jewish teachers in the face, and rebuke them sharply for their slanders of the Cretians; slanders which were particularly unwise and foolish in teachers. See on 1 Timothy 1:4. Even a prophet of their own. Callimachus, a native of Crete, said, in his hymn to Jove, Krhtev aei yeustai, The Cretes are always liars. But Callimachus does not say it in the sarcastical sense of those jewish teachers. Evil beasts, dogs, wolves, tigers, lions. Slow bellies, gluttons, monstrous eaters.

9. Holding fast—Passing from his moral qualities to his doctrinal firmness and abilities. Faithful word—Comp. 1 Timothy 1:15. Taught—From Christ through his apostles. Able—The elder must be a sound theologian, and a competent public defender of truth and corrector of error. The elder is thus the spokesman and preacher of his Church. Exhort—Encourage believers, inquirers, and all willing auditors. Convince—Refute, and produce conviction if possible. Gainsayers—Contradictors, whether in the Church or in the circle of listeners and attendants upon the congregation. As possessor of the truth of Christ, he was to judge, refute, and condemn all opposing heresy.

Counter Portraiture of the Cretan Errorists, 10-16,

V. 10. They of the circumcision-The Jewish converts.

Verse 10. There are many unruly] Persons who will not receive the sound doctrine, nor come under wholesome discipline. Vain talkers] Empty boasters of knowledge, rights, and particular privileges; all noise, empty parade, and no work.

Deceivers] Of the souls of men by their specious pretensions. They of the circumcision] The Judaizing teachers, who maintained the necessity of circumcision, and of observing the rites and ceremonies of the Mosaic law, in order to the perfecting of the Gospel.

Verses 10, 11. For there are many unruly — Subject to no order; and vain talkers — Mataiologoi, persons who utter a multitude of foolish and trifling things, especially concerning genealogies and fables; and deceivers — Frenapatai, deceived in their own minds, or deceivers of the minds of others; who delude their disciples with false opinions, in order to reconcile their consciences to wicked practices; specially they of the circumcision — Namely, the Jewish teachers, who, though converted to Christianity, taught the necessity of observing the Jewish law, together with faith in Christ, Acts 21:20. Whose mouths must be stopped — Namely, by conviction from reason and Scripture; who subvert whole houses — Overthrow the faith of whole families by their false doctrine, and as he seems to mean, carry them over to Judaism; teaching things which they ought not — Which are most false and mischievous; for filthy lucre’s sake — For the sordid purpose of drawing money from their disciples.

Ver. 9-14. To convince the gainsayers. Opening and alleging out of the scriptures to the jews, that Jesus is the Christ; calling the gentiles to repentance for their violations of the law of nature, and revolts against the power of conscience. Demonstrating also the truth of christianity by arguments, and by such signs as God was pleased to give, and by promises of the Holy Spirit to every believer.

A bishop must also be able to look the jewish teachers in the face, and rebuke them sharply for their slanders of the Cretians; slanders which were particularly unwise and foolish in teachers. See on 1 Timothy 1:4. Even a prophet of their own. Callimachus, a native of Crete, said, in his hymn to Jove, Krhtev aei yeustai, The Cretes are always liars. But Callimachus does not say it in the sarcastical sense of those jewish teachers. Evil beasts, dogs, wolves, tigers, lions. Slow bellies, gluttons, monstrous eaters.

10. Ample are the reasons for such ability, for opposers are many. Unruly—Repudiating the apostolic authority and doctrine, and setting up their own invented dogmas. Vain talkers—Utterers of the vain jangling of 1 Timothy 1:6, where see note. Deceivers—Mind-deluders, who cheat men’s brains with fancy dogmas. Circumcision—Here, as at Ephesus, the main errorists were Jews. See note on 1 Timothy 1:4.

V. 11. Stopped-The word properly means, to put a bit into the mouth of an unruly horse.

Verse 11. Whose mouths must be stopped] Unmask them at once; exhibit them to the people; make manifest their ignorance and hypocrisy; and let them be confounded before the people whom they are endeavouring to seduce.

Subvert whole houses] Turn whole Christian families from the faith, attributing to the broad way what belongs only to the strait gate; ministering to disorderly passions, and promising salvation to their proselytes, though not saved from their sins.

Verses 10, 11. For there are many unruly — Subject to no order; and vain talkers — Mataiologoi, persons who utter a multitude of foolish and trifling things, especially concerning genealogies and fables; and deceivers — Frenapatai, deceived in their own minds, or deceivers of the minds of others; who delude their disciples with false opinions, in order to reconcile their consciences to wicked practices; specially they of the circumcision — Namely, the Jewish teachers, who, though converted to Christianity, taught the necessity of observing the Jewish law, together with faith in Christ, Acts 21:20. Whose mouths must be stopped — Namely, by conviction from reason and Scripture; who subvert whole houses — Overthrow the faith of whole families by their false doctrine, and as he seems to mean, carry them over to Judaism; teaching things which they ought not — Which are most false and mischievous; for filthy lucre’s sake — For the sordid purpose of drawing money from their disciples.

Ver. 9-14. To convince the gainsayers. Opening and alleging out of the scriptures to the jews, that Jesus is the Christ; calling the gentiles to repentance for their violations of the law of nature, and revolts against the power of conscience. Demonstrating also the truth of christianity by arguments, and by such signs as God was pleased to give, and by promises of the Holy Spirit to every believer.

A bishop must also be able to look the jewish teachers in the face, and rebuke them sharply for their slanders of the Cretians; slanders which were particularly unwise and foolish in teachers. See on 1 Timothy 1:4. Even a prophet of their own. Callimachus, a native of Crete, said, in his hymn to Jove, Krhtev aei yeustai, The Cretes are always liars. But Callimachus does not say it in the sarcastical sense of those jewish teachers. Evil beasts, dogs, wolves, tigers, lions. Slow bellies, gluttons, monstrous eaters.

11. Mouths must be stopped—Not by physical force, nor usually by pure ecclesiastical authority. Yet, while church authority is less peremptory as to what private members believe, it is rightly exerted over what the minister whom it authorizes shall preach. In the present verse the meaning is, that the gainsayers shall be silenced by the ability of the elder to convince. Verse 9. Who not only seduce individuals, but subvert, that is, overthrow, (a Greek word physically expressive of overthrowing a building,) whole houses, or families. St. Paul, doubtless, speaks from memory here, of houses like that of the Philippian jailer, all baptized, (Acts 16:33;) or like that of Stephanas, baptized by himself, (1 Corinthians 1:16;) or like that of Onesiphorus, administering to and sustaining him, (2 Timothy 1:16;) but houses unlike those in being subverted and drawn from the Church into the Jewish or Gnostic fold.

V. 12. A prophet-So all poets were anciently called; but, besides, Diogenes Laertius says that Epimenides, the Cretan poet, foretold many things.

Evil wild beasts-Fierce and savage.

Verse 12. One of themselves, even a prophet of their own] This was Epimenides, who was born at Gnossus, in Crete, and was reckoned by many the seventh wise man of Greece, instead of Periander, to whom that honour was by them denied. Many fabulous things are related of this poet, which are not proper to be noticed here. He died about 538 years before the Christian era. When St. Paul calls him a prophet of their own, he only intimates that he was, by the Cretans, reputed a prophet. And, according to Plutarch, (in Solone,) the Cretans paid him divine honours after his death. Diogenes Laertius mentions some of his prophecies: beholding the fort of Munichia, which guarded the port of Athens, he cried out: “O ignorant men! if they but knew what slaughters this fort shall occasion, they would pull it down with their teeth!” This prophecy was fulfilled several years after, when the king, Antipater, put a garrison in this very fort, to keep the Athenians in subjection. See Diog. Laert., lib. i. p. 73. Plato, Deuteronomy Legibus, lib. ii., says that, on the Athenians expressing great fear of the Persians, Epimenides encouraged them by saying “that they should not come before ten years, and that they should return after having suffered great disasters.” This prediction was supposed to have been fulfilled in the defeat of the Persians in the battles of Salamis and Marathon.

He predicted to the Lacedemonians and Cretans the captivity to which they should one day be reduced by the Arcadians. This took place under Euricrates, king of Crete, and Archidamus, king of Lacedemon; vide Diog. Laert., lib. i. p. 74, edit. Meibom.

It was in consequence of these prophecies, whether true or false, that his countrymen esteemed him a prophet; that he was termed anhr aqeiov, a divine man, by Plato; and that Cicero, Deuteronomy Divin., lib. i., says he was futura præsciens, et vaticinans per furorem: “He knew future events, and prophesied under a divine influence.” These things are sufficient to justify the epithet of prophet, given him here by St. Paul. It may also be remarked that vates and poeta, prophet and poet, were synonymous terms among the Romans.

The Cretians are always liars] The words quoted here by the apostle are, according to St. Jerome, Socrates, Nicephorus, and others, taken from a work of Epimenides, now no longer extant, entitled peri crhsmwn. Concerning Oracles. The words form a hexameter verse:—

krhtev aei yeustai, kaka qhria, gasterev argai.

The Cretans are always liars; destructive wild beasts; sluggish gluttons. That the Cretans were reputed to be egregious liars, several of the ancients declare; insomuch that krhtizein, to act like a Cretan, signifies to lie; and crhsqai krhtismw, to deceive. The other Greeks reputed them liars, because they said that among them was the sepulchre of Jupiter, who was the highest object of the Greek and Roman worship. By telling this truth, which all others would have to pass for a lie, the Cretans showed that the object of their highest admiration was only a dead man.

Evil beasts] Ferocious and destructive in their manners. Slow bellies.] Addicted to voluptuousness, idleness, and gluttony; sluggish or hoggish men.

Verse.13. This witness is true.] What Epimenides said of them nearly 600 years before continued still to be true. Their original character had undergone no moral change.

Rebuke them sharply] apotomwv. Cuttingly, severely; show no indulgence to persons guilty of such crimes.

That they may be sound in the faith] That they may receive the incorrupt doctrine, and illustrate it by a holy and useful life.

Verses 12-14. One of themselves — That is, one of their own countrymen, who could not be unacquainted with their conduct, or disposed to belie them; even a prophet of their own — This was the poet Epimenides, who, among the Romans, was reputed to have foretold future events. Cicero, speaking of him, (De Divinat., lib. 1.,) says he was futura præsciens, et vaticinans per furorem; one who foreknew and foretold things future by ecstasy. Besides, as all poets pretended to a kind of inspiration, the names prophet and poet were used as synonymous, both by the Greeks and Romans. The Cretians are always liars, &c. — Epimenides said this in his book concerning oracles, a passage which Glassius hath quoted entire, p. 2075. According to Bishop Warburton, (Div. Legat., vol. 1. p. 159,) the Cretians were universally hated, and branded as liars, by the other Greeks, because, by showing in their island the tomb of Jupiter, the father of gods and men, they published what the rest of the Greeks concealed in their mysteries, namely, that their gods were dead men. Evil beasts — Or wild beasts, rather, as qhria signifies, fierce, savage; slow bellies — Lazy gluttons, as averse to action as wild beasts are after gorging themselves with their prey. So that in these words the poet suggests “a remarkable contrast, to show what a mixture there was of fierceness and luxury in the characters of the Cretians. Savage beasts are generally active and nimble, but these men, while they had the fury of lions and tigers, indulged themselves so much in the most sordid idleness and intemperance that they grew, as it were, all belly. As for their proneness to falsehood, it is well known that krhtizein, to talk like a Cretian, was a proverb for lying; (as korinqiazein, to live like a Corinthian, was for a luxurious and debauched life;) and it is remarkable that Polybius scarce ever mentions this nation without some severe censure.” This witness is true — Namely, in the general, though some particular persons may be found of a different character. Wherefore rebuke them sharply — Apotomwv, with a cutting severity. From this Blackwall infers, “that it is a vain pretence that only gentle and soft expressions are to be applied to people that renounce good principles, and corrupt the gospel.” But it ought to be observed, that St. Paul speaks of reproving vice, not error. Besides, though Titus was to reprove the Cretians sharply, “the sharpness of his reproofs was not to consist in the bitterness of the language which he used, nor in the passion with which he spake. Reproofs of that sort have little influence to make a person sound, either in faith or practice. It was to consist in the strength of the reasons with which he enforced his reproofs, and in the earnestness and affection with which he delivered them; whereby the consciences of the offenders being awakened, would sting them bitterly.” Not giving heed to Jewish fables — See 1 Timothy 1:4; and commandments of men — Of Jewish and other teachers; that turn from the truth — Forsake the true doctrine of the gospel. “It appears, from the following verse, that the apostle, in saying this, had in view the precepts of the Judaizers concerning meats, clean and unclean, which, although originally the precepts of God, were now abolished under the gospel. Therefore, if these things were any longer enjoined as obligatory, they were not enjoined by God, but by the precepts of men.” See Doddridge and Macknight.

Ver. 9-14. To convince the gainsayers. Opening and alleging out of the scriptures to the jews, that Jesus is the Christ; calling the gentiles to repentance for their violations of the law of nature, and revolts against the power of conscience. Demonstrating also the truth of christianity by arguments, and by such signs as God was pleased to give, and by promises of the Holy Spirit to every believer.

A bishop must also be able to look the jewish teachers in the face, and rebuke them sharply for their slanders of the Cretians; slanders which were particularly unwise and foolish in teachers. See on 1 Timothy 1:4. Even a prophet of their own. Callimachus, a native of Crete, said, in his hymn to Jove, Krhtev aei yeustai, The Cretes are always liars. But Callimachus does not say it in the sarcastical sense of those jewish teachers. Evil beasts, dogs, wolves, tigers, lions. Slow bellies, gluttons, monstrous eaters.

12. The fictions of these errorists have a congenial soil in the character of the Cretan population, as attested by a prophet of their own. The poet Callimachus, mentioning that it was said that the tomb of Jupiter was in Crete, responded, “The Cretans are always liars.” But the real prophet who first uttered the words quoted by St. Paul was Epimenides, born in Crete about the year 600 B.C. He was held to be a prophet in the literal sense of the word as predictor of future events. So says a Roman writer, Apuleius, “Cretan Epimenides, a renowned fore-teller and poet.” Cicero speaks of those “who by a certain excitement of the mind, and with a liberated and free movement, predict future events, as Baris the Beotian, and Epimenides the Cretan.” His biographer, Diogenes Laertius, gives instances of his predictions, and says, that “some say that the Cretans sacrifice to him as to a god.” He was invited to Athens to purify the city after its pollution in the case of Cylon. He is said to have lived to an extreme old age, and to have been buried at Lacedemon. The Cretians— The generally profligate character of the Cretins was proverbial. To Cretanize was to be a liar, as to Corinthianize was to be a debauchee. See our vol. iv, page 9. They had a rival in roguery in the islanders of AEgina, and the proverb was, “A Cretan against an AEginetan.” The three worst K’s were said to be “Krete, Kappadocia, and Kilicia.” Always liars— Suidas, the lexicographer, says, “Kretanize refers to Cretans, for they were liars and deceivers.” Evil beasts—Referring to roughness and ferocity. The island once ruled by the just Minos became a piratical nest, and Polybius and Strabo tell us that the Cretans were unrivalled in making incursions by land and sea. Cretan soldiers were often mercenaries in foreign service. Slow bellies—Whose god was their belly. Philippians 3:14. Slow implies sluggishness and stupidity, arising from gluttony.

Verses 12-14. One of themselves — That is, one of their own countrymen, who could not be unacquainted with their conduct, or disposed to belie them; even a prophet of their own — This was the poet Epimenides, who, among the Romans, was reputed to have foretold future events. Cicero, speaking of him, (De Divinat., lib. 1.,) says he was futura præsciens, et vaticinans per furorem; one who foreknew and foretold things future by ecstasy. Besides, as all poets pretended to a kind of inspiration, the names prophet and poet were used as synonymous, both by the Greeks and Romans. The Cretians are always liars, &c. — Epimenides said this in his book concerning oracles, a passage which Glassius hath quoted entire, p. 2075. According to Bishop Warburton, (Div. Legat., vol. 1. p. 159,) the Cretians were universally hated, and branded as liars, by the other Greeks, because, by showing in their island the tomb of Jupiter, the father of gods and men, they published what the rest of the Greeks concealed in their mysteries, namely, that their gods were dead men. Evil beasts — Or wild beasts, rather, as qhria signifies, fierce, savage; slow bellies — Lazy gluttons, as averse to action as wild beasts are after gorging themselves with their prey. So that in these words the poet suggests “a remarkable contrast, to show what a mixture there was of fierceness and luxury in the characters of the Cretians. Savage beasts are generally active and nimble, but these men, while they had the fury of lions and tigers, indulged themselves so much in the most sordid idleness and intemperance that they grew, as it were, all belly. As for their proneness to falsehood, it is well known that krhtizein, to talk like a Cretian, was a proverb for lying; (as korinqiazein, to live like a Corinthian, was for a luxurious and debauched life;) and it is remarkable that Polybius scarce ever mentions this nation without some severe censure.” This witness is true — Namely, in the general, though some particular persons may be found of a different character. Wherefore rebuke them sharply — Apotomwv, with a cutting severity. From this Blackwall infers, “that it is a vain pretence that only gentle and soft expressions are to be applied to people that renounce good principles, and corrupt the gospel.” But it ought to be observed, that St. Paul speaks of reproving vice, not error. Besides, though Titus was to reprove the Cretians sharply, “the sharpness of his reproofs was not to consist in the bitterness of the language which he used, nor in the passion with which he spake. Reproofs of that sort have little influence to make a person sound, either in faith or practice. It was to consist in the strength of the reasons with which he enforced his reproofs, and in the earnestness and affection with which he delivered them; whereby the consciences of the offenders being awakened, would sting them bitterly.” Not giving heed to Jewish fables — See 1 Timothy 1:4; and commandments of men — Of Jewish and other teachers; that turn from the truth — Forsake the true doctrine of the gospel. “It appears, from the following verse, that the apostle, in saying this, had in view the precepts of the Judaizers concerning meats, clean and unclean, which, although originally the precepts of God, were now abolished under the gospel. Therefore, if these things were any longer enjoined as obligatory, they were not enjoined by God, but by the precepts of men.” See Doddridge and Macknight.

Ver. 9-14. To convince the gainsayers. Opening and alleging out of the scriptures to the jews, that Jesus is the Christ; calling the gentiles to repentance for their violations of the law of nature, and revolts against the power of conscience. Demonstrating also the truth of christianity by arguments, and by such signs as God was pleased to give, and by promises of the Holy Spirit to every believer.

A bishop must also be able to look the jewish teachers in the face, and rebuke them sharply for their slanders of the Cretians; slanders which were particularly unwise and foolish in teachers. See on 1 Timothy 1:4. Even a prophet of their own. Callimachus, a native of Crete, said, in his hymn to Jove, Krhtev aei yeustai, The Cretes are always liars. But Callimachus does not say it in the sarcastical sense of those jewish teachers. Evil beasts, dogs, wolves, tigers, lions. Slow bellies, gluttons, monstrous eaters.

13. This witness is too universal not to be true. St. Paul had not only read the fact, but he had seen it. He adds his own confirmation to the ancient testimony. It was not mere slander and witty sarcasm, but sober and solemn truth, with the consequent solemn duty now to be apostolically enjoined. Rebuke all these vices in them. Sound, or healthful, (see note, l Timothy 1:10,) in the faith—For it is a very unhealthy Christian faith that accords with lying, brutality, or gluttony.

V. 14. Commandments of men-The Jewish or other teachers, whoever they were that turned from the truth.

Verse 14. Not giving heed to Jewish fables] See on 1 Timothy 1:4; 4:7.

Commandments of men] The injunctions of the scribes and Pharisees, which they added to the law of God.

That turn from the truth.] For such persons made the word of God of none effect by their traditions. Sometimes the verb apostrefomai signifies to be averse from, slight, or despise. So, here, the persons in question despised the truth, and taught others to do the same.

Verses 12-14. One of themselves — That is, one of their own countrymen, who could not be unacquainted with their conduct, or disposed to belie them; even a prophet of their own — This was the poet Epimenides, who, among the Romans, was reputed to have foretold future events. Cicero, speaking of him, (De Divinat., lib. 1.,) says he was futura præsciens, et vaticinans per furorem; one who foreknew and foretold things future by ecstasy. Besides, as all poets pretended to a kind of inspiration, the names prophet and poet were used as synonymous, both by the Greeks and Romans. The Cretians are always liars, &c. — Epimenides said this in his book concerning oracles, a passage which Glassius hath quoted entire, p. 2075. According to Bishop Warburton, (Div. Legat., vol. 1. p. 159,) the Cretians were universally hated, and branded as liars, by the other Greeks, because, by showing in their island the tomb of Jupiter, the father of gods and men, they published what the rest of the Greeks concealed in their mysteries, namely, that their gods were dead men. Evil beasts — Or wild beasts, rather, as qhria signifies, fierce, savage; slow bellies — Lazy gluttons, as averse to action as wild beasts are after gorging themselves with their prey. So that in these words the poet suggests “a remarkable contrast, to show what a mixture there was of fierceness and luxury in the characters of the Cretians. Savage beasts are generally active and nimble, but these men, while they had the fury of lions and tigers, indulged themselves so much in the most sordid idleness and intemperance that they grew, as it were, all belly. As for their proneness to falsehood, it is well known that krhtizein, to talk like a Cretian, was a proverb for lying; (as korinqiazein, to live like a Corinthian, was for a luxurious and debauched life;) and it is remarkable that Polybius scarce ever mentions this nation without some severe censure.” This witness is true — Namely, in the general, though some particular persons may be found of a different character. Wherefore rebuke them sharply — Apotomwv, with a cutting severity. From this Blackwall infers, “that it is a vain pretence that only gentle and soft expressions are to be applied to people that renounce good principles, and corrupt the gospel.” But it ought to be observed, that St. Paul speaks of reproving vice, not error. Besides, though Titus was to reprove the Cretians sharply, “the sharpness of his reproofs was not to consist in the bitterness of the language which he used, nor in the passion with which he spake. Reproofs of that sort have little influence to make a person sound, either in faith or practice. It was to consist in the strength of the reasons with which he enforced his reproofs, and in the earnestness and affection with which he delivered them; whereby the consciences of the offenders being awakened, would sting them bitterly.” Not giving heed to Jewish fables — See 1 Timothy 1:4; and commandments of men — Of Jewish and other teachers; that turn from the truth — Forsake the true doctrine of the gospel. “It appears, from the following verse, that the apostle, in saying this, had in view the precepts of the Judaizers concerning meats, clean and unclean, which, although originally the precepts of God, were now abolished under the gospel. Therefore, if these things were any longer enjoined as obligatory, they were not enjoined by God, but by the precepts of men.” See Doddridge and Macknight.

Ver. 9-14. To convince the gainsayers. Opening and alleging out of the scriptures to the jews, that Jesus is the Christ; calling the gentiles to repentance for their violations of the law of nature, and revolts against the power of conscience. Demonstrating also the truth of christianity by arguments, and by such signs as God was pleased to give, and by promises of the Holy Spirit to every believer.

A bishop must also be able to look the jewish teachers in the face, and rebuke them sharply for their slanders of the Cretians; slanders which were particularly unwise and foolish in teachers. See on 1 Timothy 1:4. Even a prophet of their own. Callimachus, a native of Crete, said, in his hymn to Jove, Krhtev aei yeustai, The Cretes are always liars. But Callimachus does not say it in the sarcastical sense of those jewish teachers. Evil beasts, dogs, wolves, tigers, lions. Slow bellies, gluttons, monstrous eaters.

14. Jewish fables—Note, 1 Timothy 1:4. Commandments—It seems strange that commentators such as Wiesinger, Huther, and Alford should uniformly say that these commandments were ascetic in their character, when gluttony is one of the prominent traits of these slow bellies. Nor does asceticism appear to have any association with the Jewish fables, though it formed part of one side of Gnosticism, (note, 2 Thessalonians 2:7,) which is not the heresy here rebuked. Simon Magus, long before this time of St. Paul’s writing, had no difficulty in blending a licentious Gnosticism with the Judaism of Samaria, and imposing his commandments upon a herd of followers, founding his licentious system on the assumption of the essential evil of matter. Acts 8:9. Similarly, Nicolas, the deacon, (Acts 6:5,) and the Nicolaitans of Revelation 2:6, appear like licentious Jewish Gnostics. To the same class belonged the “filthy dreamers” of Jude 1:8. The commandments were the moral, or rather immoral, precepts of these men.

V. 15. To the pure-Those whose hearts are purified by faith this we allow. All things are pure-All kinds of meat; the Mosaic distinction between clean and unclean meats being now taken away.

But to the defiled and unbelieving nothing is pure-The apostle joins defiled and unbelieving, to intimate that nothing can be clean without a true faith: for both the understanding and conscience, those leading powers of the soul, are polluted; consequently, so is the man and all he does.

Verse 15. Unto the pure all things are pure] This appears to have been spoken in reference to the Jewish distinctions of clean and unclean meats. To the genuine Christian every kind of meat proper for human nourishment is pure, is lawful, and may be used without scruple. This our Lord had long before decided. See on Luke 11:39-41.

But unto them that are defiled] In their consciences, and unbelieving, apistoiv, unfaithful both to offered and received grace, nothing is pure-they have no part in Christ, and the wrath of God abides upon them. Their mind is contaminated with impure and unholy images and ideas, and their conscience is defiled with the guilt of sins already committed against God.

Verses 15, 16. Unto the pure — Namely, believers whose hearts are purified by faith, Acts 15:9; all things are pure — All kinds of meats are lawful to be used; but unto them that are defiled — Who are still under the guilt and power of sin; and unbelieving — Destitute of true, saving faith, to purify them; nothing is pure — Nothing they do, enjoy, or possess: they are still defiled with guilt, and are exposed to condemnation and wrath from God. The apostle joins defiled and unbelieving, to intimate that nothing can be clean without true faith. For even their mind — Their understanding, whereby they should distinguish between what is lawful and what is unlawful, and their conscience, whereby they should judge of their own actions; is defiled — Blinded, perverted, and polluted with past guilt and present depravity; and consequently so are they, and all they do. They profess that they know God — And glory in their relation to him as his peculiar people, and boast of having the true knowledge of his will from the Mosaic revelation; see Romans 2:17; but in works they deny him — Live in contradiction to the very law they profess to know, as if they were utterly ignorant of him and it; being abominable — Worthy to be abhorred and avoided by all; and disobedient — To the plainest dictates of duty to God and man; and unto — Or, with respect to; every truly good work reprobate — Adokimoi, without discernment; neither judging truly, nor acting rightly: or disapproved and condemned, when brought to the standard of God’s word, though almost among the first to condemn others.

Ver. 15. Unto the pure, all things are pure. This is generally applied to ceremonial prohibitions of meats. Romans 14:20. But in a moral view a man of simplicity does all things with a pure and upright mind, and unsuspicious of evil, while unholy men pollute all that they touch; for the prayer of the wicked is sin. Their whole heart, and life, and conscience are polluted.

15. Pure all things… pure—Just so far as the heart is pure the eye is pure. The heart, under complete control of the law of purity, sees no effective incitement to lust in the external object. That control is the joint resultant of the divine law, the indwelling Spirit, and the firm will. Just so far as all concur, the world presents no objective temptation that wakes the sinful response from within. Them that are defiled—The slow-bellies of verse 12. Their inward nature is tinder, that takes fire at every presented spark; and the sparks are flying in perpetual circles around it. Every hour of the day objects are occurring to awaken lust, gluttony, rapine. Such men frame to themselves a dim theory of life that nothing is pure, and that all virtue is sham. To them no woman is chaste, no man is honest. All apparently good people are hypocrites; and your only honest man is the free liver, who commits all rascality and makes no pretensions to a moral life. Nothing and nobody is pure, just because they themselves are defiled. And unbelieving—Without that faith which works by love and purifies the heart, as these gainsayers, and slow-bellies, and their subverts (verse 11) were. Their mind—Their intellect, so that they think in accordance with systematic wrong, and believe that they believe it, in spite of an under-current of moral misgiving. And conscience—Their moral sense is abolished, (save the above under-current, which cannot be destroyed,) and a false conscience is constructed, by which wrong is seen by them to be their right.

Verse 16. They profess that they know God] He still speaks concerning the unbelieving Jews, the seducing teachers, and those who had been seduced by their bad doctrine. None were so full of pretensions to the knowledge of the true God as the Jews. They would not admit that any other people could have this knowledge; nor did they believe that God ever did or ever would reveal himself to any other people; they supposed that to give the law and the prophets to the Gentiles would be a profanation of the words of God. Hence they became both proud, uncharitable, and intolerant; and in this disposition they continue till the present day. But in works they deny him] Their profession and practice were at continual variance. Full of a pretended faith, while utterly destitute of those works by which a genuine faith is accredited and proved. Dio Cassius represents Cæsar as saying of his mutinous soldiers: onoma Jrwmaiwn econtav, erga de keltwn drwntav. “Having the name of Romans, while they had the manners of the Gauls.” How near are those words to the saying of the apostle!

Being abominable] bdeluktoi. This word sometimes refers to unnatural lusts.

And disobedient] apeiqeiv. Unpersuadable, unbelieving, and consequently disobedient. Characters remarkably applicable to the Jews through all their generations.

Unto every good work reprobate.] adokimoi. Adulterate; like bad coin, deficient both in the weight and goodness of the metal, and without the proper sterling stamp; and consequently not current. If they did a good work, they did not do it in the spirit in which it should be performed. They had the name of God’s people; but they were counterfeit. The prophet said; Reprobate silver shall men call them.

1. THOUGH the principal part of this chapter, and indeed of the whole epistle, may be found in nearly the same words in the First Epistle to Timothy, yet there are several circumstances here that are not so particularly noted in the other; and every minister of Christ will do well to make himself master of both; they should be carefully registered in his memory, and engraven on his heart.

2. The truth, which is according to godliness, in reference to eternal life, should be carefully regarded. The substantial knowledge of the truth must have faith for its foundation, godliness for its rule, and eternal life for its object and end. He who does not begin well, is never likely to finish fair. He who does not refer every thing to eternity, is never likely to live either well or happily in time.

3. There is one subject in this chapter not sufficiently attended to by those who have the authority to appoint men to ecclesiastical offices; none should be thus appointed who is not able, by sound doctrine, both to exhort and convince the gainsayers. The powers necessary for this are partly natural, partly gracious, and partly acquired. 1. If a man have not good natural abilities, nothing but a miracle from heaven can make him a proper preacher of the Gospel; and to make a man a Christian minister, who is unqualified for any function of civil life, is sacrilege before God. 2. If the grace of God do not communicate ministerial qualifications, no natural gifts, however splendid, can be of any avail. To be a successful Christian minister, a man must feel the worth of immortal souls in such a way as God only can show it, in order to spend and be spent in the work. He who has never passed through the travail of the soul in the work of regeneration in his own heart, can never make plain the way of salvation to others. 3. He who is employed in the Christian ministry should cultivate his mind in the most diligent manner; he can neither learn nor know too much. If called of God to be a preacher, (and without such a call he had better be a galley slave,) he will be able to bring all his knowledge to the assistance and success of his ministry. If he have human learning, so much the better; if he be accredited, and appointed by those who have authority in the Church, it will be to his advantage; but no human learning, no ecclesiastical appointment, no mode of ordination, whether Popish, Episcopal, Protestant, or Presbyterian, can ever supply the Divine unction, without which he never can convert and build up the souls of men. The piety of the flock must be faint and languishing when it is not animated by the heavenly zeal of the pastor; they must be blind if he be not enlightened; and their faith must be wavering when he can neither encourage nor defend it.

4. In consequence of the appointment of improper persons to the Christian ministry, there has been, not only a decay of piety, but also a corruption of religion. No man is a true Christian minister who has not grace, gifts, and fruit; if he have the grace of God, it will appear in his holy life and godly conversation. If to this he add genuine abilities, he will give full proof of his ministry; and if he give full proof of his ministry, he will have fruit; the souls of sinners will be converted to God through his preaching, and believers will be built up on their most holy faith. How contemptible must that man appear in the eyes of common sense, who boasts of his clerical education, his sacerdotal order, his legitimate authority to preach, administer the Christian sacraments, &c., while no soul is benefited by his ministry! Such a person may have legal authority to take tithes, but as to an appointment from God, he has none; else his word would be with power, and his preaching the means of salvation to his perishing hearers. TITUS

Verses 15, 16. Unto the pure — Namely, believers whose hearts are purified by faith, Acts 15:9; all things are pure — All kinds of meats are lawful to be used; but unto them that are defiled — Who are still under the guilt and power of sin; and unbelieving — Destitute of true, saving faith, to purify them; nothing is pure — Nothing they do, enjoy, or possess: they are still defiled with guilt, and are exposed to condemnation and wrath from God. The apostle joins defiled and unbelieving, to intimate that nothing can be clean without true faith. For even their mind — Their understanding, whereby they should distinguish between what is lawful and what is unlawful, and their conscience, whereby they should judge of their own actions; is defiled — Blinded, perverted, and polluted with past guilt and present depravity; and consequently so are they, and all they do. They profess that they know God — And glory in their relation to him as his peculiar people, and boast of having the true knowledge of his will from the Mosaic revelation; see Romans 2:17; but in works they deny him — Live in contradiction to the very law they profess to know, as if they were utterly ignorant of him and it; being abominable — Worthy to be abhorred and avoided by all; and disobedient — To the plainest dictates of duty to God and man; and unto — Or, with respect to; every truly good work reprobate — Adokimoi, without discernment; neither judging truly, nor acting rightly: or disapproved and condemned, when brought to the standard of God’s word, though almost among the first to condemn others.

16. Profess… know God—Rather, they confess; the verb implying the truth of what they acknowledge. They are monotheists, acknowledging the holy God of Israel. But—Contrastive. There is a contradiction between their confession and their conduct. Works… deny—Their actions ignore the God who requires holiness of life. Abominable—The Greek rendering of that most expressive Hebrew term by which the Old Testament designates that horrible blend of sexual licentiousness with religious worship of which the Phenician Sidon was the apparent centre, and Ashtoreth (the Ishtar of the Babylonian tablets and the Astarte of Greek literature) the idol goddess, against which all the force of the Jehovah worship was for ages arrayed. This was that “goddess of the Zidonians,” denounced 1 Kings 11:5, And the present gainsayers were the true successors of the old abominable sensualists against whom St. Paul—true successor of the prophets of old—arrays all the force of Jehovah-Jesus. Disobedient—To the true decalogue which the holy Jehovah, whom they profess, enjoins. Reprobate—Cannot stand the test of scrutiny as to being real doers of any good work. The word has no reference to an eternally predestined reprobation. See notes on 1 Corinthians 9:27; and 2 Corinthians 13:5, where the same Greek word occurs.