Amos · Chapter 2

V. 1. The bones-Or ashes, reduced them by fire into fine dust, and used these ashes instead of lime to plaister the walls and roofs of his palace, and this in hatred and contempt of the king of Edom.

Verse 1. For three transgressions of Moab and for four] See an explanation of this form Amos 1:2. The land of the Moabites lay to the east of the Dead Sea. For the origin of this people, see Genesis 19:37. He burned the bones on the king of Edom into lime] Possibly referring to some brutality; such as opening the grave of one of the Idumean kings, and calcining his bones. It is supposed by some to refer to the fact mentioned 2 Kings 3:26, when the kings of Judah, Israel, and Idumea, joined together to destroy Moab. The king of it, despairing to save his city, took seven hundred men, and made a desperate sortie on the quarter where the king of Edom was; and, though not successful, took prisoner the son of the king of Edom; and, on their return into the city, offered him as a burnt-offering upon the wall, so as to terrify the besieging armies, and cause them to raise the siege. Others understand the son that was sacrificed to be the king of Moab’s own son.

Verses 1-3. For three transgressions of Moab — Moab and Ammon being nearly related, (see Genesis 19:37,) and bordering upon each other, they are usually joined together in the threatenings of the prophets. Because he burned the bones of the king of Edom to lime — To plaster the walls of his house with it, as the Chaldee paraphrase explains the text, which was most ungenerously and cruelly insulting over the dead. A like story is told by Sir Paul Rycaut (Present State of the Greek Church, chap. 2.) of the walls of the city Philadelphia, made of the bones of the besieged, by the prince that took it by storm. I will send a fire upon Moab — Moab was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, Jeremiah 27:3, 6. It shall devour the palaces of Kirioth — A principal city of this country. And Moab shall die with tumult — The Moabites shall be destroyed in the tumult of war. And I will cut off the judge in the midst thereof — Probably the chief magistrate or king is intended.

1-3. The sin and punishment of Moab. Moab — The third nation east of the Jordan closely related to the Hebrews (Amos 1:11, 13). The territory of the Moabites was to the south of Ammon, on the uplands east of the Dead Sea. It was well adapted to agriculture, for it contained many broad valleys and well-watered fields. As a result the Moabites became at a very early period a settled people with large cities. War was waged between Israel and Moab from an early time (Judges 3:16; 1 Samuel 14:47; 2 Samuel 8:2; but compare Ruth 1:4; 1 Samuel 22:3). After the division Moab seems to have secured its independence, for Omri was compelled to conquer it (2 Kings 3:4; compare Moabite Stone, ll. 4, 5). Subsequently King Mesha revolted and secured his independence (2 Kings 3:5ff.; compare Moabite Stone, ll. 5ff.), which was never again lost to Israel.

Burned the bones of the king of Edom into lime — The exact nature of this crime is uncertain. Was the king burned alive, or after he had died but before he had been buried, or was his body taken from the tomb and burned? To burn the king alive would be extreme cruelty, but to prevent proper burial by burning a corpse or to desecrate a tomb by removing the corpse would also be considered a heinous crime; for, according to ancient Semitic conception, the departed who received no proper burial (Jeremiah 36:30) or whose resting place was disturbed found no rest in Sheol. Many sepulchral inscriptions contain awful curses upon disturbers of the resting places of the departed. Eshmunazar of Sidon, for example, prays that he who desecrates his tomb “may have no root beneath, or fruit above, or any beauty among the living under the sun.” Amos’ sentiments are not due to any heathenish superstition; he is aroused by the spirit of hatred and vindictiveness that manifests itself in the crime. The fact that Moab is condemned not for sins committed against Israel but against the very enemies of the Hebrews is another indication of the high ethical standards of Amos.

Of the crime mentioned nothing is known otherwise; it may have been committed after the joint attack upon Moab by Judah, Israel, and Edom (about 850 B.C.). According to 2 Kings 3:26, the king of Moab seems to have harbored special hatred against the king of Edom. Perhaps he was unable to avenge himself while the king was alive, and therefore pursued him even after death. Fire — Asin 1:4. Kirioth — R.V., “Kerioth.” Since it represents the whole country, it must have been a city of prominence. It is mentioned again in Jeremiah 48:41, and on the Moabite Stone, 50.

13. Its location is not certain. Some identify it with Kir (or Ar) of Moab (Isaiah 15:1), chiefly because of the similarity of the names and the fact that wherever Ar or Kir is mentioned no mention is made of Kirioth. Another name for the same locality is thought to be Kir-hareseth or Kir-heres (Isaiah 16:7, 11). This, on the testimony of the Targum, is identified with the modern Kerak, about eleven miles east of the southern bay of the Dead Sea, eighteen miles south of the Arnon. Others think that Kerioth may be identified with the modern Kureiyat, north of the Arnon, which it has been customary to identify with the ancient Kiriathaim. With tumult — The noise and confusion of battle. Jeremiah calls the Moabites “sons of tumult” (Jeremiah 48:45; compare Numbers 24:17) There is no warrant for Hoffmann’s suggestion that the Hebrew translated “tumult” is the name of the acropolis of Ar, and that the preposition should be rendered “in,” the name of the acropolis being used instead of the name of the city, as Zion is used sometimes in the place of Jerusalem. With shouting — See on Amos 1:14. Sound of the trumpet — Or, horn (see on Hosea 5:8). The sound is the signal to advance. Judge — Since Moab was governed by kings, the use of judge has been explained by assuming that Moab at the time of Amos had no independent king, that judge is equivalent to governor or viceroy, and that Jeroboam II had deposed the king and placed a governor upon the throne of Moab. However, 2 Kings 14:25, is not a sufficient basis for this assumption; the verse does not prove even that Moab was subject to Jeroboam (see on Amos 6:14); besides, Mesha, who was a vassal of Omri, is called “king” (2 Kings 3:4). It is better to interpret judge as equivalent to king (compare Micah 5:1). The title is appropriate since one of the chief functions of the ancient king was the administration of justice (2 Samuel 8:15; 15:2; 1 Kings 7:7, etc.).

When this prophecy found its fulfillment it is impossible to say. The kings of Moab are mentioned as tributaries in the Assyrian inscriptions from the time of Tiglath-pileser III onward. Isaiah 15, 16; Jeremiah 48; Ezekiel 25 contain announcements of judgment and disaster upon Moab (compare also Zephaniah 2:8-10).

V. 2. Kirioth-A principal city of this country. Moab-The Moabites. Shall die-Be destroyed. With tumult-Such as soldiers in fight or assaults make, when they carry all by force.

Verse 2. The palaces of Kirioth] This was one of the principal cities of the Moabites.

Moab shall die with tumult] All these expressions seem to refer to this city’s being taken by storm, which was followed by a total slaughter of its inhabitants.

Verses 1-3. For three transgressions of Moab — Moab and Ammon being nearly related, (see Genesis 19:37,) and bordering upon each other, they are usually joined together in the threatenings of the prophets. Because he burned the bones of the king of Edom to lime — To plaster the walls of his house with it, as the Chaldee paraphrase explains the text, which was most ungenerously and cruelly insulting over the dead. A like story is told by Sir Paul Rycaut (Present State of the Greek Church, chap. 2.) of the walls of the city Philadelphia, made of the bones of the besieged, by the prince that took it by storm. I will send a fire upon Moab — Moab was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, Jeremiah 27:3, 6. It shall devour the palaces of Kirioth — A principal city of this country. And Moab shall die with tumult — The Moabites shall be destroyed in the tumult of war. And I will cut off the judge in the midst thereof — Probably the chief magistrate or king is intended.

Verse 2. Kirioth, a city of Moab, having palaces. Jeremiah 48:24.

1-3. The sin and punishment of Moab. Moab — The third nation east of the Jordan closely related to the Hebrews (Amos 1:11, 13). The territory of the Moabites was to the south of Ammon, on the uplands east of the Dead Sea. It was well adapted to agriculture, for it contained many broad valleys and well-watered fields. As a result the Moabites became at a very early period a settled people with large cities. War was waged between Israel and Moab from an early time (Judges 3:16; 1 Samuel 14:47; 2 Samuel 8:2; but compare Ruth 1:4; 1 Samuel 22:3). After the division Moab seems to have secured its independence, for Omri was compelled to conquer it (2 Kings 3:4; compare Moabite Stone, ll. 4, 5). Subsequently King Mesha revolted and secured his independence (2 Kings 3:5ff.; compare Moabite Stone, ll. 5ff.), which was never again lost to Israel.

Burned the bones of the king of Edom into lime — The exact nature of this crime is uncertain. Was the king burned alive, or after he had died but before he had been buried, or was his body taken from the tomb and burned? To burn the king alive would be extreme cruelty, but to prevent proper burial by burning a corpse or to desecrate a tomb by removing the corpse would also be considered a heinous crime; for, according to ancient Semitic conception, the departed who received no proper burial (Jeremiah 36:30) or whose resting place was disturbed found no rest in Sheol. Many sepulchral inscriptions contain awful curses upon disturbers of the resting places of the departed. Eshmunazar of Sidon, for example, prays that he who desecrates his tomb “may have no root beneath, or fruit above, or any beauty among the living under the sun.” Amos’ sentiments are not due to any heathenish superstition; he is aroused by the spirit of hatred and vindictiveness that manifests itself in the crime. The fact that Moab is condemned not for sins committed against Israel but against the very enemies of the Hebrews is another indication of the high ethical standards of Amos.

Of the crime mentioned nothing is known otherwise; it may have been committed after the joint attack upon Moab by Judah, Israel, and Edom (about 850 B.C.). According to 2 Kings 3:26, the king of Moab seems to have harbored special hatred against the king of Edom. Perhaps he was unable to avenge himself while the king was alive, and therefore pursued him even after death. Fire — Asin 1:4. Kirioth — R.V., “Kerioth.” Since it represents the whole country, it must have been a city of prominence. It is mentioned again in Jeremiah 48:41, and on the Moabite Stone, 50.

13. Its location is not certain. Some identify it with Kir (or Ar) of Moab (Isaiah 15:1), chiefly because of the similarity of the names and the fact that wherever Ar or Kir is mentioned no mention is made of Kirioth. Another name for the same locality is thought to be Kir-hareseth or Kir-heres (Isaiah 16:7, 11). This, on the testimony of the Targum, is identified with the modern Kerak, about eleven miles east of the southern bay of the Dead Sea, eighteen miles south of the Arnon. Others think that Kerioth may be identified with the modern Kureiyat, north of the Arnon, which it has been customary to identify with the ancient Kiriathaim. With tumult — The noise and confusion of battle. Jeremiah calls the Moabites “sons of tumult” (Jeremiah 48:45; compare Numbers 24:17) There is no warrant for Hoffmann’s suggestion that the Hebrew translated “tumult” is the name of the acropolis of Ar, and that the preposition should be rendered “in,” the name of the acropolis being used instead of the name of the city, as Zion is used sometimes in the place of Jerusalem. With shouting — See on Amos 1:14. Sound of the trumpet — Or, horn (see on Hosea 5:8). The sound is the signal to advance. Judge — Since Moab was governed by kings, the use of judge has been explained by assuming that Moab at the time of Amos had no independent king, that judge is equivalent to governor or viceroy, and that Jeroboam II had deposed the king and placed a governor upon the throne of Moab. However, 2 Kings 14:25, is not a sufficient basis for this assumption; the verse does not prove even that Moab was subject to Jeroboam (see on Amos 6:14); besides, Mesha, who was a vassal of Omri, is called “king” (2 Kings 3:4). It is better to interpret judge as equivalent to king (compare Micah 5:1). The title is appropriate since one of the chief functions of the ancient king was the administration of justice (2 Samuel 8:15; 15:2; 1 Kings 7:7, etc.).

When this prophecy found its fulfillment it is impossible to say. The kings of Moab are mentioned as tributaries in the Assyrian inscriptions from the time of Tiglath-pileser III onward. Isaiah 15, 16; Jeremiah 48; Ezekiel 25 contain announcements of judgment and disaster upon Moab (compare also Zephaniah 2:8-10).

V. 3. The judge-The governor that is, every one of them.

Verse 3. I will cut off the judge] It shall be so destroyed, that it shall never more have any form of government. The judge here, cpwv shophet, may signify the chief magistrate. The chief magistrates of the Carthaginians were called suffetes; probably taken from the Hebrew JUDGES, µycpwv shophetim.

Verses 1-3. For three transgressions of Moab — Moab and Ammon being nearly related, (see Genesis 19:37,) and bordering upon each other, they are usually joined together in the threatenings of the prophets. Because he burned the bones of the king of Edom to lime — To plaster the walls of his house with it, as the Chaldee paraphrase explains the text, which was most ungenerously and cruelly insulting over the dead. A like story is told by Sir Paul Rycaut (Present State of the Greek Church, chap. 2.) of the walls of the city Philadelphia, made of the bones of the besieged, by the prince that took it by storm. I will send a fire upon Moab — Moab was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, Jeremiah 27:3, 6. It shall devour the palaces of Kirioth — A principal city of this country. And Moab shall die with tumult — The Moabites shall be destroyed in the tumult of war. And I will cut off the judge in the midst thereof — Probably the chief magistrate or king is intended.

1-3. The sin and punishment of Moab. Moab — The third nation east of the Jordan closely related to the Hebrews (Amos 1:11, 13). The territory of the Moabites was to the south of Ammon, on the uplands east of the Dead Sea. It was well adapted to agriculture, for it contained many broad valleys and well-watered fields. As a result the Moabites became at a very early period a settled people with large cities. War was waged between Israel and Moab from an early time (Judges 3:16; 1 Samuel 14:47; 2 Samuel 8:2; but compare Ruth 1:4; 1 Samuel 22:3). After the division Moab seems to have secured its independence, for Omri was compelled to conquer it (2 Kings 3:4; compare Moabite Stone, ll. 4, 5). Subsequently King Mesha revolted and secured his independence (2 Kings 3:5ff.; compare Moabite Stone, ll. 5ff.), which was never again lost to Israel.

Burned the bones of the king of Edom into lime — The exact nature of this crime is uncertain. Was the king burned alive, or after he had died but before he had been buried, or was his body taken from the tomb and burned? To burn the king alive would be extreme cruelty, but to prevent proper burial by burning a corpse or to desecrate a tomb by removing the corpse would also be considered a heinous crime; for, according to ancient Semitic conception, the departed who received no proper burial (Jeremiah 36:30) or whose resting place was disturbed found no rest in Sheol. Many sepulchral inscriptions contain awful curses upon disturbers of the resting places of the departed. Eshmunazar of Sidon, for example, prays that he who desecrates his tomb “may have no root beneath, or fruit above, or any beauty among the living under the sun.” Amos’ sentiments are not due to any heathenish superstition; he is aroused by the spirit of hatred and vindictiveness that manifests itself in the crime. The fact that Moab is condemned not for sins committed against Israel but against the very enemies of the Hebrews is another indication of the high ethical standards of Amos.

Of the crime mentioned nothing is known otherwise; it may have been committed after the joint attack upon Moab by Judah, Israel, and Edom (about 850 B.C.). According to 2 Kings 3:26, the king of Moab seems to have harbored special hatred against the king of Edom. Perhaps he was unable to avenge himself while the king was alive, and therefore pursued him even after death. Fire — Asin 1:4. Kirioth — R.V., “Kerioth.” Since it represents the whole country, it must have been a city of prominence. It is mentioned again in Jeremiah 48:41, and on the Moabite Stone, 50.

13. Its location is not certain. Some identify it with Kir (or Ar) of Moab (Isaiah 15:1), chiefly because of the similarity of the names and the fact that wherever Ar or Kir is mentioned no mention is made of Kirioth. Another name for the same locality is thought to be Kir-hareseth or Kir-heres (Isaiah 16:7, 11). This, on the testimony of the Targum, is identified with the modern Kerak, about eleven miles east of the southern bay of the Dead Sea, eighteen miles south of the Arnon. Others think that Kerioth may be identified with the modern Kureiyat, north of the Arnon, which it has been customary to identify with the ancient Kiriathaim. With tumult — The noise and confusion of battle. Jeremiah calls the Moabites “sons of tumult” (Jeremiah 48:45; compare Numbers 24:17) There is no warrant for Hoffmann’s suggestion that the Hebrew translated “tumult” is the name of the acropolis of Ar, and that the preposition should be rendered “in,” the name of the acropolis being used instead of the name of the city, as Zion is used sometimes in the place of Jerusalem. With shouting — See on Amos 1:14. Sound of the trumpet — Or, horn (see on Hosea 5:8). The sound is the signal to advance. Judge — Since Moab was governed by kings, the use of judge has been explained by assuming that Moab at the time of Amos had no independent king, that judge is equivalent to governor or viceroy, and that Jeroboam II had deposed the king and placed a governor upon the throne of Moab. However, 2 Kings 14:25, is not a sufficient basis for this assumption; the verse does not prove even that Moab was subject to Jeroboam (see on Amos 6:14); besides, Mesha, who was a vassal of Omri, is called “king” (2 Kings 3:4). It is better to interpret judge as equivalent to king (compare Micah 5:1). The title is appropriate since one of the chief functions of the ancient king was the administration of justice (2 Samuel 8:15; 15:2; 1 Kings 7:7, etc.).

When this prophecy found its fulfillment it is impossible to say. The kings of Moab are mentioned as tributaries in the Assyrian inscriptions from the time of Tiglath-pileser III onward. Isaiah 15, 16; Jeremiah 48; Ezekiel 25 contain announcements of judgment and disaster upon Moab (compare also Zephaniah 2:8-10).

V. 4. Lies-Idols. To err-Their idolatry blinded them, partly from the natural tendency of this sin, and partly from the just judgment of God. After which-Idols. Walked-Successively, one generation after another.

Verse 4. For three transgressions of Judah] We may take the three and four here to any latitude; for this people lived in continual hostility to their God, from the days of David to the time of Uzziah, under whom Amos prophesied. Their iniquities are summed up under three general heads: 1. They despised, or rejected the law of the Lord. 2. They kept not his statutes. 3. They followed lies, were idolaters, and followed false prophets rather than those sent by Jehovah.

Verses 4, 5. For three transgressions of Judah, &c. — Having denounced judgments against the heathen nations, he now proceeds to denounce them against God’s professing people, who were more guilty and inexcusable, as sinning against greater light, and abusing greater advantages than those with which the heathen were favoured. Because they have despised the law of the Lord — The law which was holy, just, and good, and which raised them in dignity above every other nation. In despising this law they despised the wisdom, justice, and goodness of the Law-maker; and this they did, in effect, when they observed not the commandments of it, and made no conscience of keeping them, or acquainting themselves therewith. And their lies — Vulgate, Idola sua, their idols, or fictitious deities, have caused them to err — Their idolatry blinded them, partly from the natural tendency of this sin, and partly from the just judgment of God. After the which — Idols; their fathers have walked — Successively, one generation after another, notwithstanding all the warnings I have given them by my prophets. But I will send a fire upon Judah, &c. — Nebuchadnezzar’s army was this fire, that burned many cities of Judah, and at last Jerusalem itself.

4, 5. The sin and punishment of Judah. Judah — The southern kingdom, the home of Amos, in distinction from the northern kingdom, against which Amos prophesied. The other nations had sinned against Jehovah without external law (Romans 2:12); Judah had received a law, therefore its guilt was greater. Law of Jehovah — See on Hosea 4:6. Despised [“rejected”] — As authoritative (Hosea 8:12); they refused to obey it and to be guided by it. Commandments [“statutes”] — Literally, the things engraven, that is, on public tablets. The word is found frequently in Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 4:5, 8, 14; 5:1, 31, etc.) and designates enactments of a moral, religious, or civil character. As the next clause indicates, here it refers primarily to statutes enjoining loyalty to Jehovah. Lies — The worthless idols that have no existence, and whose imagined power and ability to help are not real (Isaiah 66:3; Jeremiah 5:7; Leviticus 19:4, etc.). The fathers put their trust in these; the children followed in the footsteps of their ancestors. The history of Judah presents numerous illustrations of this apostasy. True, there were some kings who remained more or less loyal to Jehovah (1 Kings 15:11; 22:43; 2 Kings 12:2, 3; 14:3), but there were others who looked with favor upon idolatry (1 Kings 15:3; 2 Kings 8:18, 27; 11:1). Amos himself says little concerning religious conditions in Judah, but there can be no doubt that even in his day idolatry was prevalent there (compare Isaiah 2:8). Utter destruction of the state and of Jerusalem, the political and religious center, will be the punishment.

A partial fulfillment of Amos’s threat took place when Sennacherib overran Judah and besieged Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:3ff.; Isaiah 36:1ff.). At that time Jerusalem escaped, but fire did “devour the palaces of Jerusalem” when in 586 B.C. the city was taken and destroyed by the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. After the restoration it was rebuilt, and the city has had a continuous history since. Its present population is said to be about fifty thousand.

Verse 5. I will send a fire upon Judah] This fire was the war made upon the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar, which terminated with the sackage and burning of Jerusalem and its palace the temple.

Verses 4, 5. For three transgressions of Judah, &c. — Having denounced judgments against the heathen nations, he now proceeds to denounce them against God’s professing people, who were more guilty and inexcusable, as sinning against greater light, and abusing greater advantages than those with which the heathen were favoured. Because they have despised the law of the Lord — The law which was holy, just, and good, and which raised them in dignity above every other nation. In despising this law they despised the wisdom, justice, and goodness of the Law-maker; and this they did, in effect, when they observed not the commandments of it, and made no conscience of keeping them, or acquainting themselves therewith. And their lies — Vulgate, Idola sua, their idols, or fictitious deities, have caused them to err — Their idolatry blinded them, partly from the natural tendency of this sin, and partly from the just judgment of God. After the which — Idols; their fathers have walked — Successively, one generation after another, notwithstanding all the warnings I have given them by my prophets. But I will send a fire upon Judah, &c. — Nebuchadnezzar’s army was this fire, that burned many cities of Judah, and at last Jerusalem itself.

4, 5. The sin and punishment of Judah. Judah — The southern kingdom, the home of Amos, in distinction from the northern kingdom, against which Amos prophesied. The other nations had sinned against Jehovah without external law (Romans 2:12); Judah had received a law, therefore its guilt was greater. Law of Jehovah — See on Hosea 4:6. Despised [“rejected”] — As authoritative (Hosea 8:12); they refused to obey it and to be guided by it. Commandments [“statutes”] — Literally, the things engraven, that is, on public tablets. The word is found frequently in Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 4:5, 8, 14; 5:1, 31, etc.) and designates enactments of a moral, religious, or civil character. As the next clause indicates, here it refers primarily to statutes enjoining loyalty to Jehovah. Lies — The worthless idols that have no existence, and whose imagined power and ability to help are not real (Isaiah 66:3; Jeremiah 5:7; Leviticus 19:4, etc.). The fathers put their trust in these; the children followed in the footsteps of their ancestors. The history of Judah presents numerous illustrations of this apostasy. True, there were some kings who remained more or less loyal to Jehovah (1 Kings 15:11; 22:43; 2 Kings 12:2, 3; 14:3), but there were others who looked with favor upon idolatry (1 Kings 15:3; 2 Kings 8:18, 27; 11:1). Amos himself says little concerning religious conditions in Judah, but there can be no doubt that even in his day idolatry was prevalent there (compare Isaiah 2:8). Utter destruction of the state and of Jerusalem, the political and religious center, will be the punishment.

A partial fulfillment of Amos’s threat took place when Sennacherib overran Judah and besieged Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:3ff.; Isaiah 36:1ff.). At that time Jerusalem escaped, but fire did “devour the palaces of Jerusalem” when in 586 B.C. the city was taken and destroyed by the armies of Nebuchadnezzar. After the restoration it was rebuilt, and the city has had a continuous history since. Its present population is said to be about fifty thousand.

V. 6. Shoes-The smallest bribe, exprest here proverbially.

Verses 6. - 8. For three transgressions of Israel, &c.] To be satisfied of the exceeding delinquency of this people, we have only to open the historical and prophetic books in any part; for the whole history of the Israelites is one tissue of transgression against God. Their crimes are enumerated under the following heads:—

1. Their judges were mercenary and corrupt. They took bribes to condemn the righteous; and even for articles of clothing, such as a pair of shoes, they condemned the poor man, and delivered him into the hands of his adversary.

2. They were unmerciful to the poor generally. They pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor; or, to put it on the head of the poor; or, they bruise the head of the poor against the dust of the earth. Howsoever the clause is understood, it shows them to have been general oppressors of the poor, showing them neither justice nor mercy.

3. They turn aside the way of the meek. They are peculiarly oppressive to the weak and afflicted.

4. They were licentious to the uttermost abomination; for in their idol feasts, where young women prostituted themselves publicly in honour of Astarte, the father and son entered into impure connections with the same female.

5. They were cruel in their oppressions of the poor; for the garments or beds which the poor had pledged they retained contrary to the law, Exodus 22:7-26, which required that such things should be restored before the setting of the sun.

6. They punished the people by unjust and oppressive fines, and served their tables with wine bought by such fines. Or it may be understood of their appropriating to themselves that wine which was allowed to criminals to mitigate their sufferings in the article of death; which was the excess of inhumanity and cruelty.

Verses 6, 7. For three transgressions of Israel — Amos, having first prophesied against the Syrians, Philistines, &c., who dwelt in the neighbourhood of the twelve tribes, and who had occasionally become their enemies and oppressors; and having thus not only taught his countrymen that the providence of God extended to other nations, but conciliated attention to himself by such interesting predictions; “he briefly mentions the idolatries and consequent destruction of Judah, and then passes on to his proper subject, which was to reprove and exhort the kingdom of Israel, and to denounce judgments against it. The reason why that kingdom was particularly addressed seems to have been, that Pul invaded it in the reign of Uzziah, 2 Kings 15:19; and that in less than half a century after the first Assyrian invasion, it was subverted by Shalmaneser, 2 Kings 17:6.” — Newcome. Because they sold the righteous for silver, &c. — They perverted the cause of the righteous; and gave forth unjust sentences against them for bribes of the smallest value, even for a pair of shoes or sandals. That pant after the dust of the earth — That is, silver and gold, white and yellow dust: they covet it earnestly, and levy it on the heads of the poor by their unjust exactions. The Vulgate, however, gives another sense to this sentence. Qui conterunt super pulverem terræ capita pauperum: who tread down the heads of the poor into the dust of the earth: that is, they throw them into the dust and then trample upon them. And turn aside the way of the meek — From right and justice. They contrived to do injuries to those who they knew were mild and patient, and would bear injuries; invading their rights, and obstructing the course of justice. Observe, reader, the more patiently men bear the injuries that are done them, the greater is the sin of those that injure them, and the more occasion they have to expect that God will do his people justice, and take vengeance for them. And a man and his father will go in to the same maid — Or, young woman; to profane my holy name — To the great reproach of my name and religion: being such an instance of fornication as is scarce heard of among the more civilized heathen, as St. Paul observes, 1 Corinthians 5:1.

Ver. 6. For three transgressions of Israel. This phrase, explained in Amos 1:3, is repeated against five nations, marking the greatness of their sin.

6, 7a. Oppression of the poor. Sold the righteous for silver — This accusation is commonly interpreted as a separate count in the indictment, maladministration of justice. It is thought to refer to the acceptance of bribes on the part of the judges, for which they pronounce guilty the innocent and cause him to be sold into slavery. The next clause, “the poor for a pair of shoes,” is said to mark an advanced degree of corruption, when the judges do the same “for a pair of shoes” (see below). Others interpret the second clause as referring to the oppression of poor debtors by rich creditors; the latter sell the former into slavery, though the indebtedness involved may be insignificant. The latter interpretation of “(they sold) the poor for a pair of shoes” is to be preferred (Amos 8:6; but compare Amos 5:12; Isaiah 1:23; 3:14, 15); and it seems best to interpret the first clause also of the oppression of the poor by rich creditors rather than of maladministration of justice. They — The wealthy and powerful creditors. Sold — That is, into slavery. In a figurative sense the verb may be used of less severe treatment. Righteous — Not in an ethical but in a forensic sense — innocent; those who have come into the control of their creditors without any fault of their own. Silver — The money for which they are said to be indebted. Poor — R.V., “needy.” Those who are unable to meet their obligations and have no one to take their part. For a pair of shoes — A proverbial expression for something of little value; equivalent to the modern “for a song.” “One of the commonest crimes of Amos’s day was that of land-grabbing on the part of the rich (Isaiah 5:8), and it is this that Amos is here denouncing.”

The greed of the rich is further described in 7a, in Hebrew in the form of a participial clause, reproduced in English by a relative clause, connected with “they” of verse 6. Pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor — A peculiar expression. If the text is correct, a twofold interpretation is possible. With both, “dust on the head” is a sign of distress and mourning (2 Samuel 1:2; 15:32; Lamentations 2:10). The meaning, then, may be either that they are “so avaricious that they begrudge the poor even the little dust used as a token of mourning,” or, that they are so heartless that they yearn to see the poor reduced to a state of misery and distress in which they will sprinkle the dust upon their heads. Jerome reads a different, though similar, verb, “to crush” for “to pant,” and omits the preposition before “the head.” He reads, “who crush upon the dust of the earth the head of the poor,” which gives excellent sense, and is accepted by many as original. With this forceful figure of extreme cruelty may be compared Isaiah 3:15, “grind the faces of the poor,” and Micah 3:2, 3, “strip the flesh off their bones.” Other emendations suggested are less probable. Meek — Simple-minded, God-fearing persons, who harm no one and who do not know the craftiness and deceitfulness of this world, to guard against it. Turn aside the way — They place obstacles in the way of the meek; thus they prevent the carrying out of their plans and purposes, and throw them into difficulties where they become an easy prey.

7b. Immoralities. A man and his father will go in unto the same maid — The addition of same, which is not in the original, is based upon a misapprehension. The emphasis is not upon the fact that the father and the son go in to the same girl, but upon the universality of the immoral practices. The article is used in a generic sense, to indicate that the maiden alluded to is a member of a well-known class (G.-K., 126g). In English the indefinite article may be used. The allusion is to the sacred prostitutes at the shrines of Ashtoreth, who were found even in those Hebrew sanctuaries where, nominally at least, Jehovah was worshiped (see on Hosea 4:13). A man and his father — father and son; the practice is universal; there is no attempt to conceal it. To profane my holy name — A final clause, “in order to.” The Israelites should have known better (verse 11), and Amos assumes that they did know better; therefore he represents the practice of these immoralities as deliberate premeditated acts in defiance of the well-known will of God, by which acts discredit and dishonor were brought purposely upon the name of Jehovah, that is, upon his character; for “God’s name is equivalent to the sum of his attributes as revealed to his chosen people” (Isaiah 57:15; Psalm 111:9; see on Micah 5:4). On profane see on Joel 2:17. The immoralities condemned in 7b are those practiced in the name of religion; the excesses condemned in verse 8 also are connected with the religious cult, though “clothes taken in pledge” goes back to the first count in the indictment. Lay themselves down… by [“beside”] every altar — In drunken carousal (8b). There may be an allusion to the practice condemned in 7b. Clothes laid to [“taken in”] pledge — The term used denotes the outer garment, a large square cloth with a hood, thrown over the body and held together from the inside. To the poor people this garment served also as a covering at night, and since the nights are at times very cool it is indispensable. Sometimes the garment was given in pledge, but the humane law in Exodus 22:26, demands its return to the owner at sundown. This law the unrighteous nobles neglected to observe in their mad desire to satisfy their lusts. They drink the wine — At feasts connected with the peace and thank offerings (Amos 5:23; Exodus 32:6, etc.); these feasts had become occasions of revelry and debauchery. Of the condemned — Better R.V., “such as have been fined.” The wine was purchased with money received from fines; whether just or unjust Amos does not say; that in many cases they were unjust there can be no doubt. The house of their god — R.V., “God.” It is also possible to render “gods” or even “the houses of their gods.” The Hebrew is ambiguous. To Amos the chief earthly dwelling place of Jehovah was Jerusalem (Amos 1:2). Whether he considered all local sanctuaries illegitimate and the worship practiced there idolatry is not certain. At any rate, he evidently has in mind here the practices at such sanctuaries as Beth-el, Gilgal (Amos 4:4), and Beer-sheba (Amos 8:14); that he thinks of more than one place is indicated also by “beside every altar.”

V. 7. The people-That make a prey even of the poor afflicted ones, who walk with dust on their heads. Turn aside-Maliciously interpret the actions, words, and designs of the humble and meek. Will go in-These corrupt judges commit also that lewdness which the Heathens abhor.

Verses 6. - 8. For three transgressions of Israel, &c.] To be satisfied of the exceeding delinquency of this people, we have only to open the historical and prophetic books in any part; for the whole history of the Israelites is one tissue of transgression against God. Their crimes are enumerated under the following heads:—

1. Their judges were mercenary and corrupt. They took bribes to condemn the righteous; and even for articles of clothing, such as a pair of shoes, they condemned the poor man, and delivered him into the hands of his adversary.

2. They were unmerciful to the poor generally. They pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor; or, to put it on the head of the poor; or, they bruise the head of the poor against the dust of the earth. Howsoever the clause is understood, it shows them to have been general oppressors of the poor, showing them neither justice nor mercy.

3. They turn aside the way of the meek. They are peculiarly oppressive to the weak and afflicted.

4. They were licentious to the uttermost abomination; for in their idol feasts, where young women prostituted themselves publicly in honour of Astarte, the father and son entered into impure connections with the same female.

5. They were cruel in their oppressions of the poor; for the garments or beds which the poor had pledged they retained contrary to the law, Exodus 22:7-26, which required that such things should be restored before the setting of the sun.

6. They punished the people by unjust and oppressive fines, and served their tables with wine bought by such fines. Or it may be understood of their appropriating to themselves that wine which was allowed to criminals to mitigate their sufferings in the article of death; which was the excess of inhumanity and cruelty.

Verses 6, 7. For three transgressions of Israel — Amos, having first prophesied against the Syrians, Philistines, &c., who dwelt in the neighbourhood of the twelve tribes, and who had occasionally become their enemies and oppressors; and having thus not only taught his countrymen that the providence of God extended to other nations, but conciliated attention to himself by such interesting predictions; “he briefly mentions the idolatries and consequent destruction of Judah, and then passes on to his proper subject, which was to reprove and exhort the kingdom of Israel, and to denounce judgments against it. The reason why that kingdom was particularly addressed seems to have been, that Pul invaded it in the reign of Uzziah, 2 Kings 15:19; and that in less than half a century after the first Assyrian invasion, it was subverted by Shalmaneser, 2 Kings 17:6.” — Newcome. Because they sold the righteous for silver, &c. — They perverted the cause of the righteous; and gave forth unjust sentences against them for bribes of the smallest value, even for a pair of shoes or sandals. That pant after the dust of the earth — That is, silver and gold, white and yellow dust: they covet it earnestly, and levy it on the heads of the poor by their unjust exactions. The Vulgate, however, gives another sense to this sentence. Qui conterunt super pulverem terræ capita pauperum: who tread down the heads of the poor into the dust of the earth: that is, they throw them into the dust and then trample upon them. And turn aside the way of the meek — From right and justice. They contrived to do injuries to those who they knew were mild and patient, and would bear injuries; invading their rights, and obstructing the course of justice. Observe, reader, the more patiently men bear the injuries that are done them, the greater is the sin of those that injure them, and the more occasion they have to expect that God will do his people justice, and take vengeance for them. And a man and his father will go in to the same maid — Or, young woman; to profane my holy name — To the great reproach of my name and religion: being such an instance of fornication as is scarce heard of among the more civilized heathen, as St. Paul observes, 1 Corinthians 5:1.

Ver. 7. A man and his father will go in to the same maid. Herodotus has delicately mentioned the licentiousness of the feasts of Venus, or Astarte. Incest is a crime which always made the heathen blush, At the end of Calvin’s Commentary on Joshua, there is a collation of the moral law of Moses with the laws of the Romans, edition 1603, in which he found seven laws by successive emperors against marriages within the prohibited degrees of affinity. The providence of God decided in the case of Moab’s feasts, that the culprits should be punished with death.

6, 7a. Oppression of the poor. Sold the righteous for silver — This accusation is commonly interpreted as a separate count in the indictment, maladministration of justice. It is thought to refer to the acceptance of bribes on the part of the judges, for which they pronounce guilty the innocent and cause him to be sold into slavery. The next clause, “the poor for a pair of shoes,” is said to mark an advanced degree of corruption, when the judges do the same “for a pair of shoes” (see below). Others interpret the second clause as referring to the oppression of poor debtors by rich creditors; the latter sell the former into slavery, though the indebtedness involved may be insignificant. The latter interpretation of “(they sold) the poor for a pair of shoes” is to be preferred (Amos 8:6; but compare Amos 5:12; Isaiah 1:23; 3:14, 15); and it seems best to interpret the first clause also of the oppression of the poor by rich creditors rather than of maladministration of justice. They — The wealthy and powerful creditors. Sold — That is, into slavery. In a figurative sense the verb may be used of less severe treatment. Righteous — Not in an ethical but in a forensic sense — innocent; those who have come into the control of their creditors without any fault of their own. Silver — The money for which they are said to be indebted. Poor — R.V., “needy.” Those who are unable to meet their obligations and have no one to take their part. For a pair of shoes — A proverbial expression for something of little value; equivalent to the modern “for a song.” “One of the commonest crimes of Amos’s day was that of land-grabbing on the part of the rich (Isaiah 5:8), and it is this that Amos is here denouncing.”

The greed of the rich is further described in 7a, in Hebrew in the form of a participial clause, reproduced in English by a relative clause, connected with “they” of verse 6. Pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor — A peculiar expression. If the text is correct, a twofold interpretation is possible. With both, “dust on the head” is a sign of distress and mourning (2 Samuel 1:2; 15:32; Lamentations 2:10). The meaning, then, may be either that they are “so avaricious that they begrudge the poor even the little dust used as a token of mourning,” or, that they are so heartless that they yearn to see the poor reduced to a state of misery and distress in which they will sprinkle the dust upon their heads. Jerome reads a different, though similar, verb, “to crush” for “to pant,” and omits the preposition before “the head.” He reads, “who crush upon the dust of the earth the head of the poor,” which gives excellent sense, and is accepted by many as original. With this forceful figure of extreme cruelty may be compared Isaiah 3:15, “grind the faces of the poor,” and Micah 3:2, 3, “strip the flesh off their bones.” Other emendations suggested are less probable. Meek — Simple-minded, God-fearing persons, who harm no one and who do not know the craftiness and deceitfulness of this world, to guard against it. Turn aside the way — They place obstacles in the way of the meek; thus they prevent the carrying out of their plans and purposes, and throw them into difficulties where they become an easy prey.

7b. Immoralities. A man and his father will go in unto the same maid — The addition of same, which is not in the original, is based upon a misapprehension. The emphasis is not upon the fact that the father and the son go in to the same girl, but upon the universality of the immoral practices. The article is used in a generic sense, to indicate that the maiden alluded to is a member of a well-known class (G.-K., 126g). In English the indefinite article may be used. The allusion is to the sacred prostitutes at the shrines of Ashtoreth, who were found even in those Hebrew sanctuaries where, nominally at least, Jehovah was worshiped (see on Hosea 4:13). A man and his father — father and son; the practice is universal; there is no attempt to conceal it. To profane my holy name — A final clause, “in order to.” The Israelites should have known better (verse 11), and Amos assumes that they did know better; therefore he represents the practice of these immoralities as deliberate premeditated acts in defiance of the well-known will of God, by which acts discredit and dishonor were brought purposely upon the name of Jehovah, that is, upon his character; for “God’s name is equivalent to the sum of his attributes as revealed to his chosen people” (Isaiah 57:15; Psalm 111:9; see on Micah 5:4). On profane see on Joel 2:17. The immoralities condemned in 7b are those practiced in the name of religion; the excesses condemned in verse 8 also are connected with the religious cult, though “clothes taken in pledge” goes back to the first count in the indictment. Lay themselves down… by [“beside”] every altar — In drunken carousal (8b). There may be an allusion to the practice condemned in 7b. Clothes laid to [“taken in”] pledge — The term used denotes the outer garment, a large square cloth with a hood, thrown over the body and held together from the inside. To the poor people this garment served also as a covering at night, and since the nights are at times very cool it is indispensable. Sometimes the garment was given in pledge, but the humane law in Exodus 22:26, demands its return to the owner at sundown. This law the unrighteous nobles neglected to observe in their mad desire to satisfy their lusts. They drink the wine — At feasts connected with the peace and thank offerings (Amos 5:23; Exodus 32:6, etc.); these feasts had become occasions of revelry and debauchery. Of the condemned — Better R.V., “such as have been fined.” The wine was purchased with money received from fines; whether just or unjust Amos does not say; that in many cases they were unjust there can be no doubt. The house of their god — R.V., “God.” It is also possible to render “gods” or even “the houses of their gods.” The Hebrew is ambiguous. To Amos the chief earthly dwelling place of Jehovah was Jerusalem (Amos 1:2). Whether he considered all local sanctuaries illegitimate and the worship practiced there idolatry is not certain. At any rate, he evidently has in mind here the practices at such sanctuaries as Beth-el, Gilgal (Amos 4:4), and Beer-sheba (Amos 8:14); that he thinks of more than one place is indicated also by “beside every altar.”

V. 8. Lay down-The Jews of old did not sit upright at their meals, but leaned on one side. Upon clothes-Of which the law had expressly said, none should detain them all night, Deuteronomy 24:12,13. Every altar-Of their idols. Drink the wine-They offer their drink-offerings in wine, which they bought with the fines laid on the innocent.

Verses 6. - 8. For three transgressions of Israel, &c.] To be satisfied of the exceeding delinquency of this people, we have only to open the historical and prophetic books in any part; for the whole history of the Israelites is one tissue of transgression against God. Their crimes are enumerated under the following heads:—

1. Their judges were mercenary and corrupt. They took bribes to condemn the righteous; and even for articles of clothing, such as a pair of shoes, they condemned the poor man, and delivered him into the hands of his adversary.

2. They were unmerciful to the poor generally. They pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor; or, to put it on the head of the poor; or, they bruise the head of the poor against the dust of the earth. Howsoever the clause is understood, it shows them to have been general oppressors of the poor, showing them neither justice nor mercy.

3. They turn aside the way of the meek. They are peculiarly oppressive to the weak and afflicted.

4. They were licentious to the uttermost abomination; for in their idol feasts, where young women prostituted themselves publicly in honour of Astarte, the father and son entered into impure connections with the same female.

5. They were cruel in their oppressions of the poor; for the garments or beds which the poor had pledged they retained contrary to the law, Exodus 22:7-26, which required that such things should be restored before the setting of the sun.

6. They punished the people by unjust and oppressive fines, and served their tables with wine bought by such fines. Or it may be understood of their appropriating to themselves that wine which was allowed to criminals to mitigate their sufferings in the article of death; which was the excess of inhumanity and cruelty.

Verse 8. They lay themselves down upon clothes laid to pledge — The Jews as well as the Romans used to lie along at their meals on couches, as appears by this verse, compared with Amos 6:4: a custom which was continued in after times as is evident by divers passages in the gospels, read in the original, which speak, not of persons sitting, but lying down, or reclining, at meat. As the prophet here speaks of their laying themselves down by every altar, it is manifest he refers to the feasts which were made of part of their idolatrous sacrifices, and were eaten in some of the apartments of their temples, according to the custom both of the Jews and Gentiles. And the prophet reproves them for three abuses. 1st, That they kept the clothes which they had received as pledges from the poor, contrary to the law, which commanded that the clothes received in pledge should be returned by the going down of the sun: see Exodus 22:6. 2d, That they made feasts in the houses, or temples, of their idols, or golden calves, no longer coming to the temple at Jerusalem; and, as if to insult the holiness of God’s laws, and to carry the marks of their iniquity even to the feet of their altars, they sat down in their temples upon the garments which they had received in pledge from the poor. 3d, That they caroused at the expense of those on whom they had unjustly laid fines, or, as it is expressed in the text, They drank the wine of the condemned in the house of their god — As drink-offerings, made with wine, were a necessary part of the sacrifices, so some portion of these was likewise reserved for the entertainments that followed. And this the prophet here signifies was bought with the fines or mulcts laid on the innocent.

Ver. 8. They lay down on clothes laid to pledge by every altar. The dwellings of the wicked are habitations of cruelty. The poor in ancient times were often ragged, or clad in garments much impaired: no nation could dress like the British poor. Here the garments were pledged for wine at the idol feast; and the humane law of Moses required all such garments to be restored at sunset, redeemed or not redeemed. Exodus 22:27. Nay, the judges and the priests, in the more depraved times, drank fines of men condemned for breaches of the peace. In our laws of king Ina, who reigned in the west of England, all crimes had their price.

THE SIN AND PUNISHMENT OF ISRAEL, 6-16.

The denunciations in Amos 1:3-2:5, are preparatory to Amos 2:6-16, which is the thesis of the entire book. Chapters 3ff. are an elaboration of this thesis. If other nations, less favored than Israel, are to be punished for their sins, can Israel, with its superior privileges and advantages, hope to escape judgment? The prophet begins his accusation in the same stereo-typed form, but he departs from it after the first verse. He opens with the presentation of the indictment (6-8), containing two counts: (1) oppression of the poor, (2) immorality and inordinate self-indulgence practiced in the name of religion. With this conduct he contrasts the divine care for Israel and condemns the base ingratitude of the corrupt nation (9-12). He closes with an announcement of the speedy destruction of the people (13-16).

V. 9. The Ammorite-The mightiest nation of all the Canaanites. As the oaks-Another proverbial speech denoting their great strength. His fruit-Their children. His roots-The old standards; that present generation.

Verse 9. Yet destroyed I the Amorite] Here follow general heads of God’s mercies to them, and the great things he had done for them. 1. Bringing them out of Egypt. 2. Miraculously sustaining them in the wilderness forty years. 3. Driving out the Canaanites before them, and giving them possession of the promised land. 4. Raising up prophets among them to declare the Divine will. 5. And forming the holy institution of the Nazarites among them, to show the spiritual nature of his holy religion, Amos 2:9-11.

Verse 9. Yet destroyed I the Amorite before them — Namely, when they came out of Egypt. The Amorites include the rest of the Canaanites, and are here mentioned rather than the others, as being the mightiest nation of them all. Here the benefits which God had bestowed upon the Israelites are mentioned that it might appear how great their ingratitude was toward him. Whose height was like that of the cedars — Who were men of a vast stature, and remarkable strength. The image is a grand and natural one. Virgil makes the same comparison, speaking of the Titans, Æneid, lib. 3. verse 677.

“Concilium horrendum, quales cum vertice celso,

Aeriæ quercus, aut coniferæ Cyparissi

Constiterunt, sylva alta Jovis, lucusve Dianæ.”

“A dreadful council, with their heads on high,

Not yielding to the tow’ring tree of Jove,

Or tallest cypress of Diana’s grove.”

DRYDEN.

Yet I destroyed his fruit from above, and his roots from beneath — The prophet diversifies and continues the image with great beauty. See similar ones, Homer’s Il., 13:389, and Hor. Od., 50. 4:6. So Virgil compares the destruction of Troy to the cutting down a mountain ash; and the fall of Entellus to that of a pine. Æn., 2:626; 5:447.

Ver. 9. Yet destroyed I the Amorite—whose height was like a cedar. The tall sons of Anak were, without a doubt, ten feet high, according to Genesis 6:4. In battle, the strokes of their arm must have resembled those of the scythe which cuts the grass. They were however greater monsters in crime than in stature. But where was Israel’s gratitude for deliverance from these giants, which made the ten spies faint with fear.

9-12. What contrast between the actual conduct of the people and the conduct that might be expected of them in view of Jehovah’s loving care for them throughout their entire history! He brought them out of Egypt and led them in the wilderness (10); he destroyed the Amorites (9); he raised up religious teachers (11, 12). In the present Hebrew text the chronological order of events is not observed; chronologically the verses should be arranged 10, 9, 11, 12, and this Harper thinks to have been the original order.

Yet destroyed I — The contrast is brought out more emphatically in the Hebrew, “But I (on my part), I destroyed.” Amorite — In verse 10 Palestine is called “the land of the Amorite,” an expression found also in early Babylonian inscriptions. In the Old Testament Amorite is used (1) as synonymous with Canaanite, to designate the inhabitants of the whole of Palestine (Joshua 24:8, 15, 18; Deuteronomy 1:7, 19, etc.); (2) to designate the peoples ruled by Sihon and Og, east of the Jordan (Numbers 21:21-25). As verse 10 makes plain, here the reference is to the inhabitants of the entire land. Cedars — Among the Hebrews the “type of loftiness and grandeur” (Isaiah 2:13; compare Amos 1:30, 31). Oaks — The type of strength and endurance (Isaiah 2:13; compare Amos 1:30, 31; Zechariah 11:2). For the belief that the inhabitants of Palestine were of giant stature see Deuteronomy 1:28; Numbers 13:32, 33. Fruit… roots — The highest and the lowest parts, equivalent to root and branch — completely. A similar expression is read on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar (see on verse 1; compare Hosea 9:16; Isaiah 5:24). Also I — The pronoun is again emphatic. Brought you up — Up, because of the mountainous character of Palestine as compared with Egypt. From the land of Egypt — The Exodus from Egypt was the supreme manifestation of Jehovah’s love and power in Hebrew history; hence it is frequently made the basis of prophetic appeals (Amos 3:1; Hosea 12:9; 13:4, etc.). Forty years through the wilderness — Lovingly and tenderly he cared for them and supplied their wants (Amos 5:25; Deuteronomy 2:7; 8:2; 29:5); his ultimate purpose being to bring them into the promised land.

Jehovah raised up among them religious and moral teachers, which was a special mark of divine favor, enjoyed by Israel exclusively. Prophets,… Nazarites [“Nazirites”] — Two classes of religious teachers and workers; the former taught principally, though not exclusively, by word of mouth, the latter by example. Both played important parts. From the beginning of Hebrew history to its close no serious crisis arose without God raising up a prophet to lead the people through it. The Nazirites (separated, or, consecrated) tried to stem by example the tide of worldliness and self-indulgence, which threatened to sweep away the simplicity of ancient Hebrew life. (See articles “Prophecy and Prophets” and “Nazirites,” in Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible.) The law regulating the conduct of Nazirites is found in Numbers 6:1-21 (compare Jeremiah 35). Is it not even thus — An appeal to confirm or deny the preceding statements. Denial was impossible. Saith Jehovah — This particular expression is very common in prophetic writings; it is a solemn asseverative interjection (see on Joel 2:12); and by calling attention to the fact that the prophet is delivering the word of Jehovah it sets a seal of truthfulness upon the message.

The Israelites failed to appreciate the divine goodness; not only did they refuse to listen, they even sought to silence the prophets and compel the Nazirites to become unfaithful to their vows; by these acts they insulted Jehovah himself. Gave… wine to drink — One of the principal obligations of the Nazirites was to abstain from intoxicating drinks (Numbers 6:3). Prophesy not — Such prohibitions are not infrequent (1 Kings 13:4; 18:4; 19:2; 22:8, 26, 27; 2 Kings 1:9ff.; 6:31); for the time of Amos and later see 7:13, 16; Hosea 9:8; Isaiah 30:10, 11; Micah 2:6; Jeremiah 20:7-10.

9-12. What contrast between the actual conduct of the people and the conduct that might be expected of them in view of Jehovah’s loving care for them throughout their entire history! He brought them out of Egypt and led them in the wilderness (10); he destroyed the Amorites (9); he raised up religious teachers (11, 12). In the present Hebrew text the chronological order of events is not observed; chronologically the verses should be arranged 10, 9, 11, 12, and this Harper thinks to have been the original order.

Yet destroyed I — The contrast is brought out more emphatically in the Hebrew, “But I (on my part), I destroyed.” Amorite — In verse 10 Palestine is called “the land of the Amorite,” an expression found also in early Babylonian inscriptions. In the Old Testament Amorite is used (1) as synonymous with Canaanite, to designate the inhabitants of the whole of Palestine (Joshua 24:8, 15, 18; Deuteronomy 1:7, 19, etc.); (2) to designate the peoples ruled by Sihon and Og, east of the Jordan (Numbers 21:21-25). As verse 10 makes plain, here the reference is to the inhabitants of the entire land. Cedars — Among the Hebrews the “type of loftiness and grandeur” (Isaiah 2:13; compare Amos 1:30, 31). Oaks — The type of strength and endurance (Isaiah 2:13; compare Amos 1:30, 31; Zechariah 11:2). For the belief that the inhabitants of Palestine were of giant stature see Deuteronomy 1:28; Numbers 13:32, 33. Fruit… roots — The highest and the lowest parts, equivalent to root and branch — completely. A similar expression is read on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar (see on verse 1; compare Hosea 9:16; Isaiah 5:24). Also I — The pronoun is again emphatic. Brought you up — Up, because of the mountainous character of Palestine as compared with Egypt. From the land of Egypt — The Exodus from Egypt was the supreme manifestation of Jehovah’s love and power in Hebrew history; hence it is frequently made the basis of prophetic appeals (Amos 3:1; Hosea 12:9; 13:4, etc.). Forty years through the wilderness — Lovingly and tenderly he cared for them and supplied their wants (Amos 5:25; Deuteronomy 2:7; 8:2; 29:5); his ultimate purpose being to bring them into the promised land.

Jehovah raised up among them religious and moral teachers, which was a special mark of divine favor, enjoyed by Israel exclusively. Prophets,… Nazarites [“Nazirites”] — Two classes of religious teachers and workers; the former taught principally, though not exclusively, by word of mouth, the latter by example. Both played important parts. From the beginning of Hebrew history to its close no serious crisis arose without God raising up a prophet to lead the people through it. The Nazirites (separated, or, consecrated) tried to stem by example the tide of worldliness and self-indulgence, which threatened to sweep away the simplicity of ancient Hebrew life. (See articles “Prophecy and Prophets” and “Nazirites,” in Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible.) The law regulating the conduct of Nazirites is found in Numbers 6:1-21 (compare Jeremiah 35). Is it not even thus — An appeal to confirm or deny the preceding statements. Denial was impossible. Saith Jehovah — This particular expression is very common in prophetic writings; it is a solemn asseverative interjection (see on Joel 2:12); and by calling attention to the fact that the prophet is delivering the word of Jehovah it sets a seal of truthfulness upon the message.

The Israelites failed to appreciate the divine goodness; not only did they refuse to listen, they even sought to silence the prophets and compel the Nazirites to become unfaithful to their vows; by these acts they insulted Jehovah himself. Gave… wine to drink — One of the principal obligations of the Nazirites was to abstain from intoxicating drinks (Numbers 6:3). Prophesy not — Such prohibitions are not infrequent (1 Kings 13:4; 18:4; 19:2; 22:8, 26, 27; 2 Kings 1:9ff.; 6:31); for the time of Amos and later see 7:13, 16; Hosea 9:8; Isaiah 30:10, 11; Micah 2:6; Jeremiah 20:7-10.

V. 11. Nazarites-Persons who bound themselves to a very sober and holy life; either for some certain time, or for their whole life.

Verses 11, 12. I raised up your sons for prophets — Such were Moses, Joshua, Samuel, and many others; and of your young men for Nazarites — Who, by devoting themselves to my service in a peculiar manner, and by observing peculiar rites, were an honour to you. But ye gave the Nazarites wine — Ye tempted the Nazarites to violate their vow and contemn God’s law, persuading them to drink wine; and commanded the prophets, saying, Prophesy not — You bid the prophets hold their peace, and not speak against your actions, nor denounce any punishments against you for them. An example of this we have in Amos himself, chap. 7.

Ver. 11. Nazarites. See the notes on the sixth chapter of Numbers.

9-12. What contrast between the actual conduct of the people and the conduct that might be expected of them in view of Jehovah’s loving care for them throughout their entire history! He brought them out of Egypt and led them in the wilderness (10); he destroyed the Amorites (9); he raised up religious teachers (11, 12). In the present Hebrew text the chronological order of events is not observed; chronologically the verses should be arranged 10, 9, 11, 12, and this Harper thinks to have been the original order.

Yet destroyed I — The contrast is brought out more emphatically in the Hebrew, “But I (on my part), I destroyed.” Amorite — In verse 10 Palestine is called “the land of the Amorite,” an expression found also in early Babylonian inscriptions. In the Old Testament Amorite is used (1) as synonymous with Canaanite, to designate the inhabitants of the whole of Palestine (Joshua 24:8, 15, 18; Deuteronomy 1:7, 19, etc.); (2) to designate the peoples ruled by Sihon and Og, east of the Jordan (Numbers 21:21-25). As verse 10 makes plain, here the reference is to the inhabitants of the entire land. Cedars — Among the Hebrews the “type of loftiness and grandeur” (Isaiah 2:13; compare Amos 1:30, 31). Oaks — The type of strength and endurance (Isaiah 2:13; compare Amos 1:30, 31; Zechariah 11:2). For the belief that the inhabitants of Palestine were of giant stature see Deuteronomy 1:28; Numbers 13:32, 33. Fruit… roots — The highest and the lowest parts, equivalent to root and branch — completely. A similar expression is read on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar (see on verse 1; compare Hosea 9:16; Isaiah 5:24). Also I — The pronoun is again emphatic. Brought you up — Up, because of the mountainous character of Palestine as compared with Egypt. From the land of Egypt — The Exodus from Egypt was the supreme manifestation of Jehovah’s love and power in Hebrew history; hence it is frequently made the basis of prophetic appeals (Amos 3:1; Hosea 12:9; 13:4, etc.). Forty years through the wilderness — Lovingly and tenderly he cared for them and supplied their wants (Amos 5:25; Deuteronomy 2:7; 8:2; 29:5); his ultimate purpose being to bring them into the promised land.

Jehovah raised up among them religious and moral teachers, which was a special mark of divine favor, enjoyed by Israel exclusively. Prophets,… Nazarites [“Nazirites”] — Two classes of religious teachers and workers; the former taught principally, though not exclusively, by word of mouth, the latter by example. Both played important parts. From the beginning of Hebrew history to its close no serious crisis arose without God raising up a prophet to lead the people through it. The Nazirites (separated, or, consecrated) tried to stem by example the tide of worldliness and self-indulgence, which threatened to sweep away the simplicity of ancient Hebrew life. (See articles “Prophecy and Prophets” and “Nazirites,” in Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible.) The law regulating the conduct of Nazirites is found in Numbers 6:1-21 (compare Jeremiah 35). Is it not even thus — An appeal to confirm or deny the preceding statements. Denial was impossible. Saith Jehovah — This particular expression is very common in prophetic writings; it is a solemn asseverative interjection (see on Joel 2:12); and by calling attention to the fact that the prophet is delivering the word of Jehovah it sets a seal of truthfulness upon the message.

The Israelites failed to appreciate the divine goodness; not only did they refuse to listen, they even sought to silence the prophets and compel the Nazirites to become unfaithful to their vows; by these acts they insulted Jehovah himself. Gave… wine to drink — One of the principal obligations of the Nazirites was to abstain from intoxicating drinks (Numbers 6:3). Prophesy not — Such prohibitions are not infrequent (1 Kings 13:4; 18:4; 19:2; 22:8, 26, 27; 2 Kings 1:9ff.; 6:31); for the time of Amos and later see 7:13, 16; Hosea 9:8; Isaiah 30:10, 11; Micah 2:6; Jeremiah 20:7-10.

V. 12. Ye gave-Importuned them to drink wine, to violate their vow, and contemn God’s law.

Verse 12. But ye gave the Nazarites wine] This was expressly forbidden in the laws of their institution. See Numbers 6:1-3. Prophesy not.] They would not worship God, and they would not hear the voice of his prophets.

Verses 11, 12. I raised up your sons for prophets — Such were Moses, Joshua, Samuel, and many others; and of your young men for Nazarites — Who, by devoting themselves to my service in a peculiar manner, and by observing peculiar rites, were an honour to you. But ye gave the Nazarites wine — Ye tempted the Nazarites to violate their vow and contemn God’s law, persuading them to drink wine; and commanded the prophets, saying, Prophesy not — You bid the prophets hold their peace, and not speak against your actions, nor denounce any punishments against you for them. An example of this we have in Amos himself, chap. 7.

9-12. What contrast between the actual conduct of the people and the conduct that might be expected of them in view of Jehovah’s loving care for them throughout their entire history! He brought them out of Egypt and led them in the wilderness (10); he destroyed the Amorites (9); he raised up religious teachers (11, 12). In the present Hebrew text the chronological order of events is not observed; chronologically the verses should be arranged 10, 9, 11, 12, and this Harper thinks to have been the original order.

Yet destroyed I — The contrast is brought out more emphatically in the Hebrew, “But I (on my part), I destroyed.” Amorite — In verse 10 Palestine is called “the land of the Amorite,” an expression found also in early Babylonian inscriptions. In the Old Testament Amorite is used (1) as synonymous with Canaanite, to designate the inhabitants of the whole of Palestine (Joshua 24:8, 15, 18; Deuteronomy 1:7, 19, etc.); (2) to designate the peoples ruled by Sihon and Og, east of the Jordan (Numbers 21:21-25). As verse 10 makes plain, here the reference is to the inhabitants of the entire land. Cedars — Among the Hebrews the “type of loftiness and grandeur” (Isaiah 2:13; compare Amos 1:30, 31). Oaks — The type of strength and endurance (Isaiah 2:13; compare Amos 1:30, 31; Zechariah 11:2). For the belief that the inhabitants of Palestine were of giant stature see Deuteronomy 1:28; Numbers 13:32, 33. Fruit… roots — The highest and the lowest parts, equivalent to root and branch — completely. A similar expression is read on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar (see on verse 1; compare Hosea 9:16; Isaiah 5:24). Also I — The pronoun is again emphatic. Brought you up — Up, because of the mountainous character of Palestine as compared with Egypt. From the land of Egypt — The Exodus from Egypt was the supreme manifestation of Jehovah’s love and power in Hebrew history; hence it is frequently made the basis of prophetic appeals (Amos 3:1; Hosea 12:9; 13:4, etc.). Forty years through the wilderness — Lovingly and tenderly he cared for them and supplied their wants (Amos 5:25; Deuteronomy 2:7; 8:2; 29:5); his ultimate purpose being to bring them into the promised land.

Jehovah raised up among them religious and moral teachers, which was a special mark of divine favor, enjoyed by Israel exclusively. Prophets,… Nazarites [“Nazirites”] — Two classes of religious teachers and workers; the former taught principally, though not exclusively, by word of mouth, the latter by example. Both played important parts. From the beginning of Hebrew history to its close no serious crisis arose without God raising up a prophet to lead the people through it. The Nazirites (separated, or, consecrated) tried to stem by example the tide of worldliness and self-indulgence, which threatened to sweep away the simplicity of ancient Hebrew life. (See articles “Prophecy and Prophets” and “Nazirites,” in Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible.) The law regulating the conduct of Nazirites is found in Numbers 6:1-21 (compare Jeremiah 35). Is it not even thus — An appeal to confirm or deny the preceding statements. Denial was impossible. Saith Jehovah — This particular expression is very common in prophetic writings; it is a solemn asseverative interjection (see on Joel 2:12); and by calling attention to the fact that the prophet is delivering the word of Jehovah it sets a seal of truthfulness upon the message.

The Israelites failed to appreciate the divine goodness; not only did they refuse to listen, they even sought to silence the prophets and compel the Nazirites to become unfaithful to their vows; by these acts they insulted Jehovah himself. Gave… wine to drink — One of the principal obligations of the Nazirites was to abstain from intoxicating drinks (Numbers 6:3). Prophesy not — Such prohibitions are not infrequent (1 Kings 13:4; 18:4; 19:2; 22:8, 26, 27; 2 Kings 1:9ff.; 6:31); for the time of Amos and later see 7:13, 16; Hosea 9:8; Isaiah 30:10, 11; Micah 2:6; Jeremiah 20:7-10.

V. 13. Under you-Under the load of your sins.

Verse 13. Behold, I am pressed under you] The marginal reading is better: “Behold, I will press your place, as a cart full of sheaves presseth.” I will bring over you the wheel of destruction; and it shall grind your place— your city and temple, as the wheel of a cart laden with sheaves presses down the ground, gravel, and stones over which it rolls.

Verses 13-16. Behold I am pressed under you — Your sins have quite tired out my patience, and I am weary with bearing them: compare Isaiah 43:24; Malachi 2:17. In this sense the clause is understood by the LXX. and Vulgate. The marginal reading, however, is preferred by many commentators. Archbishop Newcome renders the verse, Behold, I will press your place as a loaded corn-wain presseth its sheaves; and Secker observes, The next verse being joined to this by the connective particle (and) makes it more natural that this should begin to express their punishment. Therefore flight shall perish from the swift — Even flight shall not secure the swift, for their enemies shall be swifter than they. The strong shall not strengthen his force — Their natural strength of body shall not deliver them. And he that is courageous shall flee away naked — Having cast away his armour, or upper garments, for greater expedition.

13-16. The punishment. Righteous retribution will overtake the sinful nation. Verse 13 is rendered more acceptably in the R.V., “Behold, I will press you in your place, as a cart presseth that is full of sheaves.” Behold I will — The Hebrew construction implies the imminence of the judgment; better, “Behold, I am about to” (G.-K., 116p). Press you in your place — The meaning of the verb, which occurs only here in the Old Testament, is doubtful. The cognate verb in Arabic means “to hinder,” “to cause to stop”; hence, “I will cause a stop under you.” If this meaning is accepted, the form of the second verb demands the translation “as a cart causes a stop.” This is strange, since we would expect “as a cart is caused to stop.” Others — so R.V. — connect the verb with the Aramaic and read, “I will press you in your place”; literally, I will press under you, which is thought to mean that he will hold them fast in their place, so that they cannot escape. This also is not without difficulties. (1) “I will press you in your place” would be quite satisfactory, but “I will press under you,” the literal rendering, is not so intelligible; and in the second clause, “as a cart is pressed,” would give good sense, not so “as a cart presseth.” (2) The presence of an Aramaic word in Hebrew at the time of Amos is peculiar.

(3) Verse 14 implies flight, though the fugitives will be overtaken; nothing is said there about inability to move. For these reasons most commentators accept the emendation of Hitzig, who reads verse 13, “Behold, I am about to cause it to totter under you, even as a wagon totters that is full of sheaves”; that is, the ground will totter under them — a figure of approaching ruin.

V. 14. The swift-For their enemies shall be swifter than they. The strong-Natural strength of body shall not deliver. The mighty-The valiant man, the man of the greatest courage.

Verse 14. The flight shall perish from the swift] The swiftest shall not be able to save himself from a swifter destruction. None, by might, by counsel, or by fleetness, shall be able to escape from the impending ruin. In a word, God has so fully determined to avenge the quarrel of his broken covenant, that all attempts to escape from his judgments shall be useless.

Verses 13-16. Behold I am pressed under you — Your sins have quite tired out my patience, and I am weary with bearing them: compare Isaiah 43:24; Malachi 2:17. In this sense the clause is understood by the LXX. and Vulgate. The marginal reading, however, is preferred by many commentators. Archbishop Newcome renders the verse, Behold, I will press your place as a loaded corn-wain presseth its sheaves; and Secker observes, The next verse being joined to this by the connective particle (and) makes it more natural that this should begin to express their punishment. Therefore flight shall perish from the swift — Even flight shall not secure the swift, for their enemies shall be swifter than they. The strong shall not strengthen his force — Their natural strength of body shall not deliver them. And he that is courageous shall flee away naked — Having cast away his armour, or upper garments, for greater expedition.

14-16. The swiftest and best-equipped warriors cannot escape. Therefore — R.V., better, “and.” Flight — Rather the place of flight or of refuge. Shall perish — Better, R.V. margin, “shall fail.” Swift — He would be expected to be the first to reach a place of safety; but when the divine blow fails the qualities ordinarily of the greatest advantage will profit nothing. Shall not strengthen his force — The strong man will be so terrified that he cannot collect his strength or make use of it. Mighty — The warrior, whose bravery might be expected to save him, cannot save his life (margin). Handleth the bow — The armed man. Shall he stand — Stop in his flight (Nahum 2:8). The swiftness of man (2 Samuel 1:23; 2:18) or of horse shall avail nothing. Courageous — Literally, the strong in his heart (Psalm 27:14; 31:24). Naked — He will throw away everything that might hinder his flight — weapons, armor, and superfluous clothing. In that day — The day of judgment. Saith Jehovah — As in verse 11.

The judgments announced in chapters 1, 2 are expected by the prophet to take the form of foreign invasions and war. In no case does he call the executioner by name; but it is beyond doubt that throughout he is thinking of the Assyrians, who, beginning with the reign of Ashur-nasir-pal (885-860 B.C.), became an ever-increasing menace to all the nations enumerated. Why Amos does not call them by name is not quite clear. It may be because in his days the Assyrian power was on the decline — it revived under Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.) — and therefore the mention of their name would have added no force to his message, but, on the contrary, might have weakened it. It is worthy of note, however, that neither Isaiah nor Jeremiah mention the national enemies by name in their earlier discourses. Wellhausen is undoubtedly right when he calls Amos “the leader of the prophetic choir of the Assyrian period.”

Verse 15. Neither shall he that rideth the horse deliver himself.] I believe all these sayings, Amos 2:13-16, are proverbs, to show the inutility of all attempts, even in the best circumstances, to escape the doom now decreed, because the cup of their iniquity was full.

Verses 13-16. Behold I am pressed under you — Your sins have quite tired out my patience, and I am weary with bearing them: compare Isaiah 43:24; Malachi 2:17. In this sense the clause is understood by the LXX. and Vulgate. The marginal reading, however, is preferred by many commentators. Archbishop Newcome renders the verse, Behold, I will press your place as a loaded corn-wain presseth its sheaves; and Secker observes, The next verse being joined to this by the connective particle (and) makes it more natural that this should begin to express their punishment. Therefore flight shall perish from the swift — Even flight shall not secure the swift, for their enemies shall be swifter than they. The strong shall not strengthen his force — Their natural strength of body shall not deliver them. And he that is courageous shall flee away naked — Having cast away his armour, or upper garments, for greater expedition.

14-16. The swiftest and best-equipped warriors cannot escape. Therefore — R.V., better, “and.” Flight — Rather the place of flight or of refuge. Shall perish — Better, R.V. margin, “shall fail.” Swift — He would be expected to be the first to reach a place of safety; but when the divine blow fails the qualities ordinarily of the greatest advantage will profit nothing. Shall not strengthen his force — The strong man will be so terrified that he cannot collect his strength or make use of it. Mighty — The warrior, whose bravery might be expected to save him, cannot save his life (margin). Handleth the bow — The armed man. Shall he stand — Stop in his flight (Nahum 2:8). The swiftness of man (2 Samuel 1:23; 2:18) or of horse shall avail nothing. Courageous — Literally, the strong in his heart (Psalm 27:14; 31:24). Naked — He will throw away everything that might hinder his flight — weapons, armor, and superfluous clothing. In that day — The day of judgment. Saith Jehovah — As in verse 11.

The judgments announced in chapters 1, 2 are expected by the prophet to take the form of foreign invasions and war. In no case does he call the executioner by name; but it is beyond doubt that throughout he is thinking of the Assyrians, who, beginning with the reign of Ashur-nasir-pal (885-860 B.C.), became an ever-increasing menace to all the nations enumerated. Why Amos does not call them by name is not quite clear. It may be because in his days the Assyrian power was on the decline — it revived under Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.) — and therefore the mention of their name would have added no force to his message, but, on the contrary, might have weakened it. It is worthy of note, however, that neither Isaiah nor Jeremiah mention the national enemies by name in their earlier discourses. Wellhausen is undoubtedly right when he calls Amos “the leader of the prophetic choir of the Assyrian period.”

Verse 16. Shall flee away naked] In some cases the alarm shall be in the night; and even the most heroic shall start from his bed, and through terror not wait to put on his clothes.

AMOS

Verses 13-16. Behold I am pressed under you — Your sins have quite tired out my patience, and I am weary with bearing them: compare Isaiah 43:24; Malachi 2:17. In this sense the clause is understood by the LXX. and Vulgate. The marginal reading, however, is preferred by many commentators. Archbishop Newcome renders the verse, Behold, I will press your place as a loaded corn-wain presseth its sheaves; and Secker observes, The next verse being joined to this by the connective particle (and) makes it more natural that this should begin to express their punishment. Therefore flight shall perish from the swift — Even flight shall not secure the swift, for their enemies shall be swifter than they. The strong shall not strengthen his force — Their natural strength of body shall not deliver them. And he that is courageous shall flee away naked — Having cast away his armour, or upper garments, for greater expedition.

14-16. The swiftest and best-equipped warriors cannot escape. Therefore — R.V., better, “and.” Flight — Rather the place of flight or of refuge. Shall perish — Better, R.V. margin, “shall fail.” Swift — He would be expected to be the first to reach a place of safety; but when the divine blow fails the qualities ordinarily of the greatest advantage will profit nothing. Shall not strengthen his force — The strong man will be so terrified that he cannot collect his strength or make use of it. Mighty — The warrior, whose bravery might be expected to save him, cannot save his life (margin). Handleth the bow — The armed man. Shall he stand — Stop in his flight (Nahum 2:8). The swiftness of man (2 Samuel 1:23; 2:18) or of horse shall avail nothing. Courageous — Literally, the strong in his heart (Psalm 27:14; 31:24). Naked — He will throw away everything that might hinder his flight — weapons, armor, and superfluous clothing. In that day — The day of judgment. Saith Jehovah — As in verse 11.

The judgments announced in chapters 1, 2 are expected by the prophet to take the form of foreign invasions and war. In no case does he call the executioner by name; but it is beyond doubt that throughout he is thinking of the Assyrians, who, beginning with the reign of Ashur-nasir-pal (885-860 B.C.), became an ever-increasing menace to all the nations enumerated. Why Amos does not call them by name is not quite clear. It may be because in his days the Assyrian power was on the decline — it revived under Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.) — and therefore the mention of their name would have added no force to his message, but, on the contrary, might have weakened it. It is worthy of note, however, that neither Isaiah nor Jeremiah mention the national enemies by name in their earlier discourses. Wellhausen is undoubtedly right when he calls Amos “the leader of the prophetic choir of the Assyrian period.”